Institutional Racism

in-school factors and home/community factors affect the academic achievement of
students and contribute to the achievement gap that exists between races.
The study of the achievement gap can be addressed from two standpoints—from a
supply-side and a demand-side viewpoint of education. In Poor Economics, Banerjee
and Duflo explain the two families of arguments surrounding education of underserved
populations. Demand-side arguments focus on aspects of minority populations that
influence education achievement. These include family background and culture, which
shape perceptions and expectations surrounding education. A large body of research
has been dedicated to studying these factors contributing to the achievement gap.
Supply-side arguments focus on the provision of education and resources and the
systemic structures in place that perpetuate the achievement gap. These include
neighborhoods, funding, and policy. In 2006, Ladson-Billings called on education
researchers to move the spotlight of education research from family background to take
into account the rest of the factors that affect educational achievement, as explained by
the Coleman Report. The concept of opportunity gaps—rather than achievement
gaps—has changed the paradigm of education research to assess education from a
top-down approach.
Social Belonging
Non-Cognitive Factors
A person's sense of social belonging is one non-cognitive factor that plays a part in the
racial achievement gap. Some of the processes that threaten a person's sense of
belonging in schools include social stigma, negative intellectual stereotypes, and
numeric under-representation.
Walton and Cohen describe three ways in which a sense of social belonging boosts
motivation, the first being positive self-image. By adopting similar interests as those who
a person considers to be socially significant, it may help to increase or affirm a person's
sense of his or her personal worth. People have a basic need to belong, which is why
people may feel a sense of distress when social rejection occurs. Students in minority
groups have to battle other factors as well, such as peer and friend groups being
separated by race. Homogeneous friend groups can segregate people out of important
networking connections, thus limiting important future opportunities that non-minority
groups have because they have access to these networking connections. Oakland
students that come from low socioeconomic families are less likely to attend schools
that provide equal education as wealthier schools that come from major American cities.
This means that only two of ten students will go to schools that have a closing
achievement gap.
Students who do not fall into the majority or dominant group in their schools often worry
about whether or not they will belong and find a valued place in their school. Their
thoughts are often centered around whether they will be accepted and valued for who
they are around their peers. Social rejection can cause reductions in IQ test
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