Mechanics of Fluids

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7.1 INTRODUCTION Flow and losses in pipes and fittings 7 The main concern of this chapter will be to introduce experimental data relating to flow in pipes and fittings. We shall confine our attention to fluids of constant viscosity and constant density. The results are applicable to gases provided that density changes are small. Aspects of fluid flow through pipes are discussed elsewhere in this book. Consideration has already been given to laminar flow through straight circular pipes and annuli in Chapter 6. A more detailed analysis of turbulent flow in straight pipes requires boundary-layer theory, and some consideration will be given to this in Chapter 8. Pipes or conduits that are not completely full of flowing fluid (e.g. sewers and culverts) are in effect open channels and these are treated separately in Chapter 10. The flow of compressible fluids is discussed in Chapter 11. 7.2 FLOW IN PIPES OF CIRCULAR CROSS SECTION 7.2.1 Aspects of laminar and turbulent flow in pipes The differences between laminar and turbulent flow have been introduced in Chapter 1, and the theory of laminar flow in a straight pipe has been developed in Chapter 6. Here we take the opportunity to expand upon various features of laminar and turbulent pipe flow. As we have seen, the nature of the flow is determined by the magnitude of the Reynolds number. For a circular pipe it is usual to take the diameter d as the linear measurement representative of the flow pattern. Thus the Reynolds number for flow through a circular pipe may be written as ϱud/µ or ud/ν where d represents the pipe diameter, u the mean velocity (volume flow rate divided by cross-sectional area), µ the dynamic viscosity, and ν denotes the kinematic viscosity µ/ϱ. Laminar flow occurs at low velocities and therefore low values of Reynolds number, Re, whereas turbulent flow takes place at high values of Re. Thus in laminar flow the viscous forces (which exert a stabilizing influence) are predominant, but in turbulent flow it is the inertia forces that prevail. Further, the fact that when the velocity is increased eddies begin suddenly rather than gradually indicates that laminar flow is then unstable and so only a slight disturbance is sufficient to bring on fully turbulent flow.
246 Flow and losses in pipes and fittings Fig. 7.1 The critical velocity at which turbulence begins is very sensitive to any initial disturbances. Vibration of the apparatus, insufficient stilling of the fluid before the flow enters the pipe, an insufficiently smooth bell-mouth at the pipe inlet, or sudden adjustment – especially partial closing – of a valve, all tend to reduce the critical velocity. Under normal engineering conditions, however, where disturbances are always present, the transition of laminar to turbulent flow occurs at values of Reynolds number between 2000 and 4000. By taking extreme precautions to avoid disturbances of any kind, investigators have achieved laminar flow in pipes at values of Re much higher than these figures. There is, then, apparently no precise upper limit to the value of Re at which the change from laminar flow to turbulent flow occurs. There is, however, a definite lower limit. When Re is less than this lower limit any disturbances in the flow are damped out by the viscous forces. As flow rate is reduced, the technique using a stream of dye (see Section 1.9.2) is not suitable for demonstrating the change from turbulent to laminar flow. The law governing the resistance to fluid flow, which is different for the two kinds of flow, provides an alternative approach. The apparatus illustrated in Fig. 7.1 is suitable for such tests. The velocity of water through a uniform horizontal pipe is controlled by a valve at its downstream end, and for various values of the mean velocity, the drop in pressure over a given length of the pipe is measured by a differential manometer. The first manometer connection is situated at a great distance from the inlet to the pipe so that any disturbances from the inlet are removed and a fully developed flow pattern is reached. Figure 7.2 illustrates the result obtainable from such an experiment. Here values of the drop in (piezometric) pressure �p divided by the length l over which it occurs are plotted against values of the mean velocity on log scales. For the lower velocities, which correspond to laminar flow, a straight line is obtained with a slope of one. This result shows that in laminar flow the pressure drop divided by length is directly proportional to the velocity, as predicted by the theory of laminar flow (Chapter 6). As the velocity is slowly increased, however, an abrupt increase in the pressure drop is found (point B on the diagram). This point corresponds to the breakdown of laminar flow. There is a region in which it is difficult to discern any simple law connecting the two variables, and then another line (CD on the diagram), which has a slope greater than the first. The slope of such lines as CD varies from test to test. For pipes with very smooth walls it may be as low as 1.7; as the roughness of the walls increases the slope approaches
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Mechanics of Fluids
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Mechanics of Fluids Eighth edition
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Contents Preface to the eighth edit
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8 Boundary Layers, Wakes and Other
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Preface to the eighth edition In th
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Fundamental concepts 1 The aim of C
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1.1.1 Molecular structure The diffe
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therefore, to have in place systems
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has been a strong movement in favou
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Notation, dimensions, units and rel
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is nearer 2 m, rather than 1 m. Her
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Properties of fluids 13 The relativ
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that is, p1 − p3 = 1 2BC ϱax (1.
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that there is an almost perfect vac
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calorically perfect. (Some writers
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As a liquid is compressed its molec
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or τ = µ ∂u ∂y (1.9) where µ
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shared among the occupants of bb, a
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the origin with slope equal to µ (
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The interplay of these various forc
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non-uniformity is always encountere
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z direction and therefore the same
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Although Reynolds used water in his
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cylinder. For a certain range of Re
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The roles of experimentation and th
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A flow model which assumes steady,
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2.1 INTRODUCTION Fluid statics 2 Fl
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3. dp/dz =−ϱg. (Since the pressu
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that is, dp p =−g dz R T Variatio
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atmosphere it is termed vacuum or s
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at its centreline be p. Then, provi
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possible, and a sloping manometer m
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The amount of liquid B on each side
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In a pressure transducer the pressu
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where the suffixes C and Oy indicat
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surface (where the pressure is atmo
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which has different depths of water
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Hydrostatic thrusts on submerged su
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plane and may then be combined into
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Since all the elemental thrusts are
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neglected when a body is weighed on
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couple acting on the body in its di
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centre of buoyancy on to the transv
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move, but also the centre of gravit
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that is, W(OG) = (W + F)(OB + BM) =
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is given by ∂p ∂x =−ϱax Equi
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Then ∂p/∂ξ = 0 by definition o
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2.5 Two small vessels are connected
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2.18 In the vertical end of an oil
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The principles governing fluids in
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planes B and C (Fig. 3.2), δs bein
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an actual fluid is thus often remar
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density are small. Then eqn 3.9 has
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General energy equation for steady
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− Energy loss to friction/time Ma
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a decrease of pressure (provided th
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in the neighbourhood of B results i
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it is difficult to measure the heig
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The diagram illustrates an orifice
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� depth h below the free surface
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Solution (a) We consider first the
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of the same liquid. A vena contract
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To ensure that the pressure measure
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Since �h = p1 − p2 ϱwg the flo
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For consistency with the mathematic
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showing the essential form of the r
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With the same assumptions used in d
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∴ Velocity of approach = 0.0660 m
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of the base of the notch. Assume th
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Our aim now is to derive a relation
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The velocity, in general, varies fr
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the control volume is � ϱ1u1ux1
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Applications of the momentum equati
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that the resultant force on the flu
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The existence of the reaction may b
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our reference axes attached to the
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of increase of x-momentum is � D
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This is a simplified picture of wha
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since u4 −u1 is the velocity of t
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(1) u 1 (2) (3) (4) Assume a sea le
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and frictional effects to be neglig
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Physical similarity and dimensional
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A well-known example of kinematic s
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polygon. Now a polygon can be compl
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The condition for dynamic similarit
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equality of the Mach numbers is not
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Consider the incompressible flow al
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moving in a straight line with cons
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of the analysis, and its correct im
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Note: a suffix has been attached to
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For example, the parameter Fϱ/µ 2
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The application of dynamic similari
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atmospheric air, the dynamic viscos
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gives rise to waves on the surface.
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To be tested, the model must theref
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it follows that Hence V2 V1 = P2 P1
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5.5 A torpedo-shaped object 900 mm
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Laminar flow between solid boundari
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the place of y: τ = µ ∂u ∂r A
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Page 208 and 209: The expression for the total discha
Page 210 and 211: etween the resisting viscous forces
Page 212 and 213: must be zero so as to meet the requ
Page 214 and 215: Example 6.2 Two stationary, paralle
Page 216 and 217: Thus for any value of y the velocit
Page 218 and 219: Steady laminar flow between moving
Page 220 and 221: in eqn 6.24 we obtain � D Vp 2
Page 222 and 223: and the passage of the liquid level
Page 224 and 225: this book, it is important to give
Page 226 and 227: 6.6.4 Rotary viscometers A simple m
Page 228 and 229: The torque T on the cylinder of rad
Page 230 and 231: stationary when the outer cylinder
Page 232 and 233: Fundamentals of the theory of hydro
Page 240 and 241: part of the bearing then gives when
Page 242 and 243: e determined by our analysis.) From
Page 248 and 249: where a = 6µ�R h3 dh pc dx Funda
Page 250 and 251: Integrating this between θ = 0 and
Page 252 and 253: Rearrangement of eqn 6.71 and subst
Page 254 and 255: 6.4 A cylindrical drum of length l
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Page 262 and 263: course, quite different from the ro
Page 264 and 265: Variation of friction factor 253 Fi
Page 266 and 267: straightforward manner without iter
Page 268 and 269: Distribution of shear stress in a c
Page 270 and 271: 7.5 FRICTION IN NON-CIRCULAR CONDUI
Page 272 and 273: estimated by simple theory. The pip
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Page 276 and 277: particular, the performance of a di
Page 278 and 279: A pipe bend thus causes a loss of h
Page 280 and 281: cross-sectional area available in t
Page 282 and 283: correlating experimental data on th
Page 284 and 285: to do this. But sub-atmospheric pre
Page 286 and 287: For systems comprising only short r
Page 288 and 289: 7.8 PIPES IN COMBINATION 7.8.1 Pipe
Page 290 and 291: 2. There can be only one value of h
Page 292 and 293: So For two pipes in parallel, and s
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Page 296 and 297: where u denotes the mean velocity i
Page 298 and 299: Assuming that entry and exit losses
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Page 304 and 305: losses, calculate (a) the total pow
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How are the running costs altered i
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main. The depth of water in the tan
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the features of boundary layer flow
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the surface other considerations ar
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and θ = = = � δ u 0 um � δ 0
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The momentum equation applied to th
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1 = y η δ The laminar boundary la
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Table 8.1 Comparison of results for
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and � � ∂f (η) B = ∂η A =
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From equation 8.17, the frictional
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The turbulent boundary layer on a s
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Hence F = 0.037ϱu 2 m l(Re l) −1
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From eqn 8.29 Hence and xt − x0 x
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from it. This breakaway before the
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this expression into eqn 8.31 we ge
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When, for example, a ship moves thr
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separate vortices in an inviscid fl
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8.8.4 Profile drag of two-dimension
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are negligible. With reduction in t
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Fig. 8.14 Drag coefficients of smoo
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sphere is falling through the atmos
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At high Reynolds numbers, the varia
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this does not prevent the continual
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Eddy viscosity and the mixing lengt
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Eddy viscosity and the mixing lengt
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Velocity distribution in turbulent
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then, although at very small values
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as η → 1 and (1 − η) is then
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When f −1/2 − 4 log 10 (d/k) is
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comparable with the velocity of sou
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The x, y and z components of the mo
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y y x i-1, j+1 i, j+1 i+1, j+1 i-1,
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e completely covered by a turbulent
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9.1 INTRODUCTION The flow of an inv
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Now consider another point P ′′
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number of smaller ones of which M a
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distortion, the element is thus not
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Any function φ that satisfies Lapl
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ecome perfect squares - except wher
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fluid, and the flow net indicates t
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9.6.2 Flow from a line source A sou
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higher orders of small magnitudes b
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Combining eqns 9.16 and 9.17 we obt
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9.6.5 Forced (rotational) vortex Th
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For a free vortex qR = constant = K
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source is unable to move to the lef
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Also we note that the source is pos
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as shown in Fig. 9.23, encloses all
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eqn 9.23 becomes ψ =−U � r −
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Thus the magnitude of the velocity
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At a stagnation point, qt = 0 and t
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function of the combined flow is gi
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or, more approximately, that betwee
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Then dw dz =−U =−u + iv Hence u
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An introduction to elementary aerof
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ound the aerofoil, its magnitude be
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and lower layers. Since the vortex
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where Ɣ0 represents the circulatio
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9.7 An open cylindrical vessel, hav
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steadily south-east at 6 m · s −
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10.2 TYPES OF FLOW IN OPEN CHANNELS
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The steady-flow energy equation for
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where the hs represent vertical dep
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to the turbulent rough flow regime
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selection of an appropriate value r
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10.6 OPTIMUM SHAPE OF CROSS-SECTION
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oughness coefficient n is independe
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thrust divided by width of the chan
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which the waves follow one another
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The conditions for the critical dep
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y downstream conditions. In these c
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may be obtained by reducing eqn 10.
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this depth is greater than the crit
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The dissipation of energy is by no
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friction, the steady-flow momentum
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Fig. 10.28 Notice that, for a chann
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calculated, and then H + u2 1 /2g m
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Fig. 10.32 If the depth of flow ove
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(Section 10.11.1). Rapid flow can n
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where 0 ≤ θ ≤ 90 ◦ and sin
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(a) The continuity equation is The
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oundaries. It can occur when the fl
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into eqn 10.39 we obtain whence dh
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Table 10.2 Gradually varied flow 46
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The slope of a given channel may, o
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direction. The effect of any bounda
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This momentum term, however, is pro
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With surface tension effects ignore
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are for waves of small amplitude) w
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when the wave was formed. The lengt
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At a particular instant the crests
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Hence h = 2.65λ 2π = 2.65 × 225
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As the ratio of these velocity comp
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water is impulsively displaced and
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is relative movement of one layer o
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the channel bed a drop of 150 mm in
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11.1 INTRODUCTION Compressible flow
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energy ÷ mass, so that the dimensi
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Energy equation with variable densi
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Solution (a) From the equation of s
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whence (c − u)δρ = (ρ + δρ)
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the sonic velocity as supersonic (M
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velocity into the undisturbed fluid
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whence p2 p1 = 1 + γ M2 1 1 + γ M
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of eqns 11.2 and 11.20 T0 T u2 = 1
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the temperature rises greatly (say
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Fig. 11.10 Oblique shock relations
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however, that for a given upstream
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The deflection through the first wa
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As δθ is very small, cos δθ →
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eqn 11.41. Substituting M 2 − 1 =
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oundaries, both of which are curved
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For supersonic flow eqn 11.45 is no
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Some general relations for one-dime
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of minimum cross-section the veloci
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downstream of the minimum cross-sec
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‘telegraphed’ upstream and a pr
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the external pressure. This compres
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Compressible flow in pipes of const
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Table 11.2 Changes with distance al
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From the Fanno Tables at pc/pB = 0.
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Therefore and M1 = u1 a 24.5 m · s
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drag. The abrupt pressure rise thro
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Analogy between compressible flow a
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is, on ∂2n ∂y2 + ∂2 � n ∂
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and the mass flow rate in the duct.
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11.18 Air flows isothermally at 15
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12.2 INERTIA PRESSURE Any volume of
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Equation 12.3 indicates that u beco
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would come to rest later. Although
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a pressure wave in a gas; here we r
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value in eqn 12.7 gives that is, wh
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the moment disregarded. An increase
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at this point remains constant for
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In addition to the reflection of wa
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is closed so that the area coeffici
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The pressure diagrams show that for
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12.3.4 The method of characteristic
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Pressure transients 577 Multiplying
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and velocities are known, then for
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For pipe 2, and hence K ′ = c2 =
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(instantaneously, we will assume) a
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The one-dimensional continuity rela
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to accommodate instantaneous comple
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12.2 A turbine which normally opera
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13.1 INTRODUCTION Fluid machines13
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flow. By way of illustration we sha
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would obviate the changes of pressu
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demand for electric power - for exa
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Turbines 599 Fig. 13.7 Runner of Pe
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determined, multiplication by the r
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Substituting for �vw from eqn 13.
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ut the larger its value the more bu
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ate of flow possible is achieved wh
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the turbine. For the high heads nor
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The integrals in eqns 13.4 and 13.5
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diagram of Fig. 13.16 we have Simil
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would be sufficient to describe the
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Table 13.1 Type of turbine Approxim
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∴ Hydraulic efficiency = Overall
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If either z (the height of the turb
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∴ Hydraulic efficiency = u1vw1/gH
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shows the general effect of change
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an unmixed blessing and, except for
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orbiting space-craft, for example,
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Losses are also possible at the inl
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Those particles next to the forward
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It should be noted that the values
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∴ (β1)A = arctan(va/u) = arctan(
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so much that the aerofoil stalls (a
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Use these data to deduce the pump c
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Manometric efficiency = 0.75 = gH/u
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and CP = P/ϱω 3 D 5 in place of Q
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yields h 1 = h f = 4fl d ≈ (100Q)
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(iii) the power dissipated by pipe
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Large numbers of test data for pump
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educed by rounding the inlet edges
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further: the turbine part then remo
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for reaction turbines: 1 − η = 1
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75 mm wide at outlet. The blades oc
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Losses at valves, etc. are estimate
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APPENDIX Units and conversion 1 fac
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Table A1.4 (contd.) Force 32.17 pdl
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APPENDIX Physical constants and 2 p
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Kinematic viscosity mm 2 ·s -1 App
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Range II: 11 000 m ≤ z ≤ 20 000
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Table A3.1 (contd.) M 1 M 2 p 2/p 1
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Table A3.2 Isentropic flow M p/po
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Table A3.3 Adiabatic flow with fric
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APPENDIX 4 Algebraic symbols Table
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Table A4.1 (contd.) Symbol Definiti
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Table A4.1 (contd.) Symbol Definiti
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Answers to problems 1.1 56.2 m 3 1.
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8.14 0.002955, 2.866 m · s −1 ,
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Absolute pressure 46 Absolute visco
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Eccentricity 230 Eccentricity ratio
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Mach angle 498 intersection 510-1 r
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Slip in fluid couplings 652 in reci
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