A SYSTEMATIC REVIEW OF THE EFFECTS OF PSYCHOTHERAPY ...

their perceptions of the world. Many continue to find in the horse a source of physical,
psychological and spiritual inspiration (Root, 2000); by creating new structures in mind and spirit
through physical exploration in partnership with a horse, clients may build stronger bridges
between their inner and outer worlds.
1.4.3 Further Theoretical Contributions
The dynamic interchange which occurs between clients and horses offers a dimension to
clinical work which is not possible within the traditional confines of the office setting.Because
horses are prey animals, their survival depends on their extreme sensitivity to the environment
(Rashid, 2000; Scanlan, 1998). They are essentially living biofeedback providers because of their
ability to respond to the emotions and internal states of those around them. Regardless of how
much a person tries to disguise emotional states, horses ignore outward form and instead
respond to inner substance (McDaniel, 1998; Roberts, Bradberry & Williams, 2004). The horse’s
demands are relatively simple and uncomplicated, and conflicts are brief and few (Morris, 1988;
Scanlan). Psychosocial interventions involving equines concentrate on the social dynamics of
equine behavior to help individuals recognize and solve their own problems while focusing on an
external, sentient being, which helps to develop awareness of internal motivations and issues.
Horses are direct and honest in exchanges, whereas humans confuse and change the
rules of social interactions through verbal communication (Russell-Martin, 2006). Horses have
often been described as a “mirror” for human emotions and processes (Kersten, 1997; Thomas,
2001; 2002). Without self-constructed barriers, they help individuals learn to be congruent in their
words and actions (Moreau & McDaniel, 2000; Schultz, Remick-Barlow & Robbins, 2007).If a
client is struggling with boundary issues and moves too close to a horse, the horse will take care
to protect its space. Because horses are social animals, they have the capacity to teach social
and relational skills because that is their basic mode of survival. They are also capable of
communicating effectively and nonverbally the explicit message that “It might not be as bad as it
must seem” (Fine, 2000). Establishing communication with a species other than our own helps to
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