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150 Outward Foreign Direct Investment by Enterprises from Turkey investment opportunities offered by privatizations in the Balkans and Central Asia. They acquired Stateowned enterprises in these host countries. The case studies also highlighted that Turkish firms prefer majority-owned joint ventures with local partners initially to minimize uncertainty and start-up costs, cope with host country bureaucratic obstacles, and to gain access to superior technology. They eventually acquired full ownership and control of their foreign affiliates after having exploited the initial benefits of joint venture. Characteristics of OFDI by Turkish SMEs. According to a survey conducted by the Observatory of European SMEs, only 3 per cent of SMEs in Europe had undertaken OFDI; however, there were differences among countries. 123 Little is known empirically as to why SMEs choose OFDI and even less is known about the extent to which they realize their OFDI objectives. No national data on OFDI by SMEs exist in Turkey. In fact, no reliable statistics exist on Turkish SMEs (OECD 2004c). The special services that the Istanbul Chamber of Industry provides to support its SME members do not include facilitation of OFDI. SMEs in Turkey do not receive any specific direct and proactive support from any public organization for OFDI. Investment abroad is to a large extent still regarded with hostility. Nonetheless, despite the lack of public institutional support, Turkish SMEs invest abroad to survive, grow and become more competitive. The Chamber conducts annual surveys on its 11,000 members, of which 98 per cent have fewer than 250 employees, for their planned investments and the realization of those plans. The surveys revealed that both large companies and SMEs viewed OFDI as increasingly critical to their competitiveness and profitability (Istanbul Sanayi Odasi (ISO) 2005). The surveys also report that firms had planned to increase their OFDI by 17 per cent during the first half of 2004 but only 3 per cent had realized those plans. In the second half of 2004, 15 per cent had planned to increase their OFDI but only 4 per cent realized their plans. As for 2005, 25 per cent of all its members planned to invest abroad, of which 22 per cent were small-scale firms. The ISO states that its members find it increasingly more attractive to invest abroad than at home due to rising intermediate input prices and declining profitability in Turkey (ISO 2005). In the absence of adequate proactive support from the Turkish Government, the Foreign Economic Relations Board (DEIK), a private non-profit making Turkish business association established in 1986, played a major role in promoting OFDI. 124 The primary objective of DE�K is to improve Turkey’s international economic relations through bilateral business councils (BBCs) 123 http://europa.eu.int/comm/enterprise/enterprise_policy/ analysis/doc/smes_observatory_2002_report1_en.pdf. 124 http://www.deik.org.tr/default_eng.asp. formed between Turkey and countries that have significant trade and investment ties. DEIK provides services to Turkish companies that either already have or intend to develop business relations in the respective partner countries. The BBCs, which meet regularly, aim not only to improve the conditions of existing bilateral trade and investment ties, but also to provide a forum for the development of new ones by collecting and exchanging information on potential business opportunities in and outside Turkey. There were 67 BBCs operating under DEIK’s umbrella as of June 2005. Many Turkish companies that are BBC members are also SMEs. C. Drivers and motivations The motivations of Turkish enterprises investing abroad differ according to size of firms (tables 5 and 6). The relative importance of the factors also varies across different companies. Liberalization, unfavourable economic conditions at home and privatization in neighbouring countries were among the key drivers (table 6). Saturated home market had encouraged Turkish enterprises to venture abroad to diversify risk, improve competitiveness and expand markets. Other important motivations include access to new markets, natural resources, technology and brand names. While cost motive is an important factor, it is not the overriding reason, particularly for the efficiency-seeking OFDI. The rise in Turkish TNCs has been described as belonging to the “second wave” of third-world TNCs whose “…globalization is less driven by cost factors per se, but more by a search for markets and technological innovations to compete successfully in the global economy” (Yeung 2000). • Liberalization and improved policy environment. As the Turkish economy became more outward-oriented since the 1980s, the Government started to liberalize the country’s OFDI regulatory environment. The improved policy environment played a role driving Turkish enterprises to go abroad. Competition at home and from abroad (through imports and inward FDI) also contributed to encouraging OFDI. In the nine companies interviewed by the auhor, liberalization of the home regulatory environment ranks a priori factor for OFDI. Along with the liberalization of the foreign exchange controls, the Turkish foreign trade regime has also been progressively liberalized, as a result of both the Uruguay Round and Turkey’s customs union with the European Union, allowing much greater competition from imports. Turkey’s inward FDI regime has also been liberalized, although not to the same
Host Country Table 3. Turkey: OFDI flows, by destination, 2002-2004 No. of Firms 2002 2003 2004 Exported Capital $1,000 No. of Firms Exported Capital $1,000 No. of Firms Exported Capital $1,000 CHAPTER XII 151 Cumulative total, 1992-2004 No. of Firms Exported Capital $1,000 Netherlands 10 157,706 10 42,469 7 181,632 82 2,243,841 Azerbaijan 2 177,374 4 298,687 1 580,742 117 1,621,565 United Kingdom 3 196 2 4,529 – 18 60 524,209 Germany 12 3,760 10 2,738 2 4,483 139 473,965 Kazakhstan 3 593 5 1,664 3 3,901 74 435,228 Luxembourg – 2,000 1 12,938 – – 18 248,712 United States 10 6,477 4 932 2 859 76 180,439 Russian Federation 6 -3,201 7 -1,697 8 2,173 87 156,990 Romania 6 -10,034 10 7,774 7 4,721 129 135,024 Virgin Islands 4 8,904 1 821 – – 10 118,848 France – – 2 57 4 163 33 93,448 Switzerland 2 151 2 1,175 – – 36 84,877 Northern Cyprus 12 2,524 18 810 25 294 159 81,263 Bulgaria 6 9,299 3 4,950 – 4,943 43 62,568 Turkmenistan – 7,879 – 4,976 – 60 25 57,437 Belgium 2 59 – 0 1 55 17 52,377 Hungary – – 1 15 1 9 9 43,144 Austria – 734 – 0 – – 9 40,440 Bahrain – 188 – 0 – – 11 39,381 Ireland 1 1,828 – 1,550 – 1,218 18 33,427 Georgia – – – 36 – – 16 30,622 Malta – – 2 1,500 – – 12 26,464 Algeria – 25,808 2 232 1 209 7 26,342 Kyrgyzstan – – – 248 – – 15 23,961 Uzbekistan 2 497 – 541 2 507 58 20,770 Others 17 20,409 18 11,947 25 23,559 233 207,724 Total 98 413,149 102 398,893 89 809,548 1,493 7,063,066 Source: Turkish Treasury (http://www.hazine.gov.tr/english/bak/country_year.xls) (Accessed in fourth quarter 2005).
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United Nations Conference on Trade
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Preface The landscape of internatio
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Acknowledgements This publication i
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viii Global Players from Emerging M
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x Global Players from Emerging Mark
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2 Global Players from Emerging Mark
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10 Global Players from Emerging Mar
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14 Outward Foreign Direct Investmen
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