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ubella despite departmental and GP efforts. In addition, there were a number of ‘specialists in paediatrics and microbiology [who] were speaking out very strongly against the policy of immunising boys’, and some doctors were refusing to adhere to policy and give rubella vaccine to male children. 29 Consequently, the EAC decided to follow the British and Australian example and recommend a change in rubella policy to ‘the direct protection of girls and women’. 30 Under this new policy all Form 1 girls would be offered immunisation in school by the Public Health nurses each year. 31 Commencing in January 1979 this policy met with higher levels of compliance and in that year, 89 percent of all Form 1 girls not previously immunised received the vaccine. 32 By 1981 this had reached 98 percent and rates over 90 percent were maintained until the mumps, measles and rubella (MMR) vaccine was introduced and offered to all Form 1 children in 1992. 33 The new rubella immunisation policy adopted in 1979 was deemed to be a successful move as it achieved high levels of compliance from the public and found favour with the majority of the medical profession. Although New Zealand had originally implemented a rubella immunisation policy, similar to the one adopted in the United States, the Health Department had had growing concerns about its effectiveness for several years, especially in light of the low levels of immunisation, although there had been no epidemics of congenital rubella since immunisation began. 34 The Department moved quite cautiously before altering policy on the recommendation of the EAC. Alterations to strategy, (particularly when not clear-cut as in the case of rubella), were usually reactive and occurred only after circumstances indicated modifications were necessary. The change made to the rubella policy indicated that the Department and the EAC gave considerable weight to the opinions expressed by both GPs and paediatric specialists and were prepared to make modifications if it was deemed advisable. It was also clear that the continued relationship between the Department and the EAC 29 R. Campbell-Begg to Editor, Otago Daily Times (ODT), 17 December 1980, ABQU 632 W4415/266 51380 131/18/1 Rubella Immunisation 1978-81, ANZ, Wellington. 30 ibid. 31 The new rubella policy also covered women of child-bearing age who were to be blood-tested and offered rubella immunisation if necessary. This particular aspect of rubella policy dealing with adults falls outside the scope of this thesis. 32 AJHR, 1980, E-10, p.23. 33 AJHR, 1982, E-10, p.20. 34 Congenital rubella was made notifiable in 1972. 206
demonstrated that no departmental changes to policy would be made unless the expert committee recommended it. 35 By the end of the 1970s there were growing concerns regarding a worldwide rubella epidemic and its implications for the unborn babies of New Zealand. This epidemic spanned 20 months from October 1979 to May 1981. 36 Unfortunately for the Health Department, the onset of this epidemic led to criticism of its new policy by groups who still advocated immunising preschoolers. Paediatrician Ian Hassall, Director of Medical Services for Plunket, indicated that ‘immunisation of 11 year olds begun in 1979, although soundly based in my opinion, will have no effect on the course of the present epidemic’ and requested a mass immunisation campaign of all schoolchildren for the start of school year in 1981. 37 The New Zealand College of General Practitioners also requested a one week campaign for February 1981 to immunise all women and children over 12 months of age. 38 The New Zealand Federation for Deaf Children requested the Department to stop the current practice of immunising adolescent girls and ‘revert to its former policy of immunising all children in the pre- school years’. 39 The Otago Daily Times also entered the fray, expressing its views in an article entitled ‘Criticism of Rubella Immunisation Policy’. 40 This commented on the ‘obvious lack of success that had accompanied the change in policy’ and advocated introducing school-based rubella immunisation at the primary school level. 41 In light of this discouragement the EAC once again reviewed rubella policy in March 1981 and recommended its continuation as it was achieving high levels of acceptance amongst Form 1 girls, much more so than under the 1970s policy of immunising 35 The Epidemiology Advisory Committee (EAC) became the Communicable Disease Control Advisory Committee (CDCAC) in January 1985. 36 J. Miller, N. S. Kuttner, Y. E. Hermon, ‘The 1980 rubella outbreak in New Zealand’, New Zealand Medical Journal (NZMJ), 9 June, 1982, p. 386. 37 I. B. Hassall to G. Gair, 18 December 1980, ABQU 632 W4415/266 51380 131/18/1 ANZ, Wellington. 38 I. St George and J. Moody to G. Gair, 16 December 1980, ABQU 632 W4415/266 51380 131/18/1, ANZ, Wellington. It should be noted that the decision taken to immunise children was not unanimous, two doctors on the committee dissented. 39 M. Gunn to R. D. Muldoon, 18 December 1980, ABQU 632 W4415/266 51380 131/18/1, ANZ, Wellington. 40 ODT, 15 December 1980. 41 ibid. 207
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http://researchspace.auckland.ac.nz
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ABSTRACT My thesis has explored the
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would most espec
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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AJHR Appendic
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CHAPTER 1: Introduction ‘It doesn
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immunisation’s ‘Golden Age’ b
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of polio in Canada up until 1962. 1
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There was however, little attempt t
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mandatory smallpox vaccination had
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the effect of changes and different
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Using the family doctor in this way
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complicated nature of this task for
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Before I could commence interviewin
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journals, both locally and overseas
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developments were also taking place
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Zealand’s first true ‘mass’ i
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In the United States there was a si
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CHAPTER 2: Curtailing the ‘Assass
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more immediate concern to parents w
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the district offices in Napier, Wha
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advised that antiseptic should be u
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an intensive two and half year camp
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programme in schools that had been
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Wellington instigated a programme t
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Low rates of diphtheria also meant
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of artificial immunity to diphtheri
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parents regarding the lack of infor
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immunisation was to be presented
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Maori and Typhoid Immunisation In 1
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vaccine. 127 In one case a Maori pu
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Department before finally erupting
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after World War Two, although durin
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CHAPTER 3: ‘Get Them Young’. Th
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from 47,698 cases in 1939 to 35,994
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priority it for the Health Departme
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undertake the immunisation work. 32
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and his generally unhelpful attitud
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were admitted to hospital suffering
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previously. Manufacturers were requ
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convulsions or encephalopathy were
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cases of encephalitis or similar we
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old boy contracted tetanus when a r
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In New Zealand Glaxo Laboratories o
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published in the New Zealand Medica
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campaign’. 130 Up until September
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y the 1940s, it was still felt by t
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Quebec government began BCG vaccina
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campaign. The Health Department’s
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tested with 2391 discovered to be p
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Tuberculosis Division, undertook a
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This scepticism focused not on the
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CHAPTER 4: ‘Something Everybody D
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opportunities denied and discrimina
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In 1949, the Department of Maori Af
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The proposal was approved by Cabine
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found to be giving poor protection
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the ‘Radio Doctor’, he gave adv
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16, found that 88 per cent were Sch
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accepted that mothers were still re
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answered in a reassuring manner. 79
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having the combined vaccine which c
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District had two clinics in its cen
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subject from the National Anti-Vacc
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misleading’ and found it was typi
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wish to immunise on these grounds.
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views on society as a whole, not ju
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CHAPTER 5: From Salk to Sabin: inte
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although as Anne Hardy noted, it di
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ecame known, resulted in 204 cases
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safety standards were higher than A
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with a growing number of vaccines o
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examine the Salk vaccine. Commencin
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immune to all three types of poliov
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concerned that the vaccine was safe
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not supply enough vaccine. The Comm
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to have it bussed in an icebox from
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officer who had often been engaged
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parents. 112 This incident demonstr
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information. 125 Some parents found
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daughter contracted polio and becam
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expected to be infants and preschoo
Page 163 and 164: A. W. S. Thompson, the Auckland Med
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Page 167 and 168: Publicity Publicity for the campaig
Page 169 and 170: October 1962, which was seen as suc
Page 171 and 172: together in one place, the preschoo
Page 173 and 174: The concerns about vaccine safety r
Page 175 and 176: CHAPTER 6: Re-inventing Disease Per
Page 177 and 178: social conditions’ as part of a r
Page 179 and 180: vaccine, as was demonstrated by hig
Page 181 and 182: However, others believed there had
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Page 185 and 186: those who believed that measles was
Page 187 and 188: Rubella Vaccine Another significant
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Page 191 and 192: percent of the expected total with
Page 193 and 194: einforcing or booster dose of vacci
Page 195 and 196: and trouble involved, whether any e
Page 197 and 198: This recommendation was not untimel
Page 199 and 200: from both Britain and the United St
Page 201 and 202: different approach had to be employ
Page 203 and 204: Hamilton District it was found that
Page 205 and 206: Medical opinions tended to vary ove
Page 207 and 208: ead and butter line’ and immunisa
Page 209 and 210: Refugees. 2 This strong influence w
Page 211 and 212: debates in medical circles surround
Page 213: 51.2 percent of those aged one to f
Page 217 and 218: magazine published four times a yea
Page 219 and 220: stations broadcast information rela
Page 221 and 222: protected from brain injury and the
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Page 225 and 226: months previously at 12 months old.
Page 227 and 228: measles, as demonstrated by the epi
Page 229 and 230: 1282 BCGs were given to ‘at risk
Page 231 and 232: American and British medical litera
Page 233 and 234: egime for children which used a fif
Page 235 and 236: Representations for funding were ma
Page 237 and 238: During 1987 the reservations of the
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Page 241 and 242: initiatives, than it did to the con
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Page 245 and 246: it was generally believed both in N
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Page 249 and 250: against polio, up from 59 percent i
Page 251 and 252: Aberdeen University, who made a stu
Page 253 and 254: assurances of safety by the JCVI in
Page 255 and 256: Polio Vaccine and SV40 1983 The Off
Page 257 and 258: inquiring about the link’. 76 Man
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Page 261 and 262: 1974 not to talk to the press about
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matter. 117 Nevertheless, two newsp
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parental confidence in the vaccine;
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only company producing a vaccine su
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Vaccine Does U-Turn’ was the head
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parents now willing to do this, in
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The growth of parental awareness re
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triple vaccine (diphtheria, tetanus
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ecoming Our Bodies, Ourselves. 11 T
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ut also because ‘I could not see
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commented that she attended Green B
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encourage discussion by parents, al
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The Immunisation Awareness Society
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which persuaded her to seek out mor
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Nevertheless the IAS can only be re
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knew they had to have their kids va
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to their attention, and the establi
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August 1988. Cartwright’s report
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To identify attitudes to immunisati
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antibodies to the disease. 131 Meas
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of immunisation issues was not show
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CHAPTER 10: Conclusion Childhood im
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e a significant portion of the popu
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of booster or top-up programmes. Th
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Zealand began to forge some of its
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There is still much scope for more
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1968 AGE PROGRAMME 3 months Triple
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At birth 6 weeks 3 months 5 months
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Primary Sources - Unpublished Archi
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144/17 25622 Polio Vaccine Committe
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Auckland Museum Library Homebirth A
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Personal Interviews Russell Kerse -
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Health of the Special Committee to
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Ashworth, N. (1988). ‘Hepatitis B
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Campbell-Begg, R. (1982). ‘Immuni
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Davidson, W. C. ‘The Mantoux Tube
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Findlay, K., Parker, C., Westaway,
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Auckland University Press. Hickling
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Lindner, U., Blume, S. S. (2006).
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three reduced doses’. New Zealand
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187-88. Porter, M. (1987). ‘Vacci
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troubled path to acceptance in Brit
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Wehrle, P. F., Top, F. H. Snr, eds.
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