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PREPARING AND SUPPORTING LEADERS IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES93The context of violenceMany developing countries are plagued by war and violence, and children areoften directly affected by the conflict. Women and children account for 92 percent of war-related deaths in Africa (Harber and Davies 1997: 17). These problemsoften result in school closures.The health contextMillions of people in developing countries live in absolute poverty. Thirtythreeper cent of Africans are living with hunger (Guardian 28 June 2005)and ‘children cannot learn effectively if they are weak from hunger’ (Harberand Davies 1997: 19). Many children and teachers also suffer from killerdiseases, including malaria and HIV/Aids. In Zambia, the number ofprimary school teachers who died from HIV/Aids in 2000, ‘is equivalent to45 percent of all teachers that were educated during that year’ (Nilsson,2003:16), while about 30 per cent of teachers in Malawi are reportedinfected (World Bank, 2002).There is also the threat of drought in many countries, leading tomalnutrition. In Niger, the Integrated Regional Information Network (IRIN)reports serious drought leading to a food crisis: ‘Some 3.6 million people,including 800,000 children, are facing acute malnutrition, which at anymoment could turn into a famine’ (AlertNet 2005). Principals are leadingschools that teach hungry children and serve deprived communities.The cultural contextIn developing countries, the values and beliefs of traditional cultures coexist,often uncomfortably, with imported Western ones. One example relates to thewidespread corruption and nepotism in developing countries. Many teachersalso have more than one job, leading to frequent absence and lateness. Schoolmanagement may also be affected by cultural politics. Oduro (2003: 203) notesthat the management of Ghanaian schools is influenced by the ‘Ghanaian culturalorientation towards the exercise of authority and power, the value for oldage and language’.This overview gives a flavour of the context within which school principalsexercise their leadership roles. The situation is immensely difficult and challengingfor many leaders in developing countries. They also rarely receiveappropriate preparation for this demanding role.
94LEADERSHIP AND MANAGEMENT DEVELOPMENT IN EDUCATIONPreparation for new principalsThe notion of preparation suggests a preconceived orientation towards careerdevelopment, by the potential principals and/or system leaders (Bush et al., inpress). Consideration of this issue has two dimensions:• The level of provision.• The quality of provision.Level of provisionIn most developing countries, including small island states, there is no formalrequirement for principals to be trained managers. They are often appointed onthe basis of a successful record as teachers with an implicit assumption that thisprovides a sufficient starting point for school leadership (Bush and Oduro 2006:362). This problem is not confined to developing countries, as we noted inChapter 5. Given the demanding contexts mentioned earlier, however, the lackof training is likely to have particularly serious consequences. Simkins et al.(1998: 131), referring to Pakistan, say that ‘management training and developmentmight help to improve the effectiveness of head teachers’.In Kenya, ‘deputy principals as well as good assistant teachers are appointedto the principalship without any leadership training … good teaching abilitiesare not necessarily an indication that the person appointed will be a capableeducational manager’ (Kitavi and van der Westhuizen 1997: 251–2). Similarly,headteachers in Ghana are often appointed without any form of preparatorytraining. ‘The Ghana Education Service seems to be working on theassumption that a successful classroom teacher necessarily makes an effectiveschool administrator’ (Amezu-Kpeglo 1990: 5). The appointment ofheadteachers is largely based on a teacher’s seniority in ‘rank’ and ‘teachingexperience’. Oduro (2003: 310) notes that ‘commitment to the provision andmaintenance of facilities, salaries and others were given priority overheadteachers’ professional development’.Kitavi and van der Westhuizen (1997) make the wider point that:The means by which most principals in developing countries are trained,selected, inducted and in-serviced are ill-suited to the development ofeffective and efficient school managers … neither the old nor the new educationalsystem [in Kenya] gives attention to either formal training orinduction of beginning school principals. (p. 251)This argument also applies in South Africa:
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ContentsNotes on the authorSeries E
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Series Editor’s ForewordThis seri
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PrefaceThe significance of effectiv
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PREFACExiiiChapter 7 shifts the deb
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3The significance of leadership and
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THE SIGNIFICANCE OF LEADERSHIP AND
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4The curriculum for leadershipdevel
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