Leadership and Management Development in Education (Education ...

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MODELS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP13to be the commitments and capacities of organisational members. Higherlevels of personal commitment to organisational goals and greater capacitiesfor accomplishing those goals are assumed to result in extra effort andgreater productivity. (Leithwood et al. 1999: 9)Leithwood (1994) conceptualises transformational leadership along eightdimensions:• Building school vision• Establishing school goals• Providing intellectual stimulation• Offering individualised support• Modelling best practices and important organisational values• Demonstrating high performance expectations• Creating a productive school culture• Developing structures to foster participation in school decisions.Caldwell and Spinks (1992: 49–50) argue that transformational leadership isessential for autonomous schools: ‘Transformational leaders succeed in gainingthe commitment of followers to such a degree that … higher levels of accomplishmentbecome virtually a moral imperative. In our view a powerful capacityfor transformational leadership is required for the successful transition to asystem of self-managing schools.’Leithwood’s (1994) research suggests that there is some empirical support forthe essentially normative transformational leadership model. He reports onseven quantitative studies and concludes that ‘transformational leadershippractices, considered as a composite construct, had significant direct andindirect effects on progress with school-restructuring initiatives and teacherperceivedstudent outcomes’ (p. 506).The transformational model is comprehensive in that it provides a normativeapproach to school leadership, which focuses primarily on the process by whichleaders seek to influence school outcomes rather than on the nature or directionof those outcomes. However, it may also be criticised as being a vehicle for controlover teachers and more likely to be accepted by the leader than the led (Chirichello1999). Allix (2000) goes further and alleges that transformational leadership hasthe potential to become ‘despotic’ because of its strong, heroic and charismatic features.He believes that the leader’s power ought to raise ‘moral qualms’ and seriousdoubts about its appropriateness for democratic organisations.The contemporary policy climate within which schools have to operate alsoraises questions about the validity of the transformational model, despite itspopularity in the literature. The English system increasingly requires schoolleaders to adhere to government prescriptions, which affect aims, curriculumcontent and pedagogy as well as values. There is ‘a more centralised, more
14LEADERSHIP AND MANAGEMENT DEVELOPMENT IN EDUCATIONdirected, and more controlled educational system [that] has dramaticallyreduced the possibility of realising a genuinely transformational education andleadership’ (Bottery 2001: 215).Transformational leadership is consistent with the collegial model in that itassumes that leaders and staff have shared values and common interests. Whenit works well, it has the potential to engage all stakeholders in the achievementof educational objectives. The aims of leaders and followers coalesce to such anextent that it may be realistic to assume a harmonious relationship and a genuineconvergence leading to agreed decisions. When ‘transformation’ is a cloakfor imposing leaders’ or governments’ values, then the process is political ratherthan collegial.Participative leadershipParticipative leadership … assumes that the decision-making processes ofthe group ought to be the central focus of the group. (Leithwood et al.1999: 12).This model is underpinned by three assumptions:• Participation will increase school effectiveness.• Participation is justified by democratic principles.• In the context of site-based management, leadership is potentially availableto any legitimate stakeholder.(Leithwood et al. 1999: 12).Sergiovanni (1984: 13) points to the importance of a participative approach.This will succeed in ‘bonding’ staff together and in easing the pressures onschool principals. ‘The burdens of leadership will be less if leadership functionsand roles are shared and if the concept of leadership density were to emerge as aviable replacement for principal leadership’ (ibid. emphasis added).Savery et al. (1992) demonstrate that deputy principals in Western Australiawish to participate in school decision-making although their desire to do so variedacross different types of decision. They conclude that ‘people are more likelyto accept and implement decisions in which they have participated, particularlywhere these decisions relate directly to the individual’s own job’ (p. 24).Interpersonal leadershipThe third leadership model relevant to collegiality is the relatively new conceptof interpersonal leadership. West-Burnham (2001: 1) argues that ‘interpersonalintelligence is the vital medium’.
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