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121The group efficiency results were calculated at service load level of 2 mm and 5 mm of topof the pier settlement. The level of group efficiency for the ultimate load at 10 mm ofsettlement was also calculated.Table 28: Stress, stiffness and deflection comparison measurements for aggregate piergroup load test results and group efficiency in comparison to a unit cell pierService load UltimatePier type 1Aggregate PierSingle PierLength(mm)k at δ top =2 mm(kPa/mm)σ at δ top= 2 mm(kPa)σ at δ top= 5 mm(kPa)σ at δ top= 10mm(kPa)δ tell-tale atδ top = 10mm(mm)Ratioδ tell-tale /δ top atδ top = 10(mm)GroupEfficiencyat 2mmGroupEfficiencyat 5mmGroupEfficiencyat 10mm305 64 129 247 406 0.44 0.04 0.4 0.4 0.4610 176 352 704 949 3.80 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.6Loess - 22 67 158 285 - - - - -Aggregate PierUnit Cell305 174 348 588 908 1.30 0.13 1.0 1.0 1.0610 441 894 1,330 1,533 2.80 0.3 1.0 1.0 1.0Loess - 139 278 685 1101 - - - - -Aggregate PierGroup of 2305 241 483 1,345 2,146 3.90 0.4 0.7 1.1 1.2610 630 1,260 2,521 3,017 0.40 0.04 0.7 0.9 1.0Loess - 321 642 1055 1609 - - - - -Aggregate PierGroup of 4305 433 867 2,254 3,406 4.80 0.5 0.6 1.0 0.9610 798 1,596 3,105 3,947 1.5 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.6Loess - 514 1028 1891 2719 - - - - -Aggregate PierGroup of 5305 765 1,529 3,233 4,150 3.50 0.4 0.9 1.1 0.9610 1,755 3,511 4,375 4,825 1.00 0.1 0.8 0.7 0.6Loess - 514 1028 1891 2719 - - - - -Aggregate PierGroup of 6305 1,537 3,073 4,100 4,898 7.00 0.7 1.5 1.2 0.9610 1,567 3,134 5,361 7,068 0.10 0.01 0.6 0.7 0.8Loess - 509 1018 1486 1886 - - - - -Legend:1 all scaled piers were constructed using cone beveledtamper headk – stiffness modulus (kPa/mm)δ top - deflection at the top of the pier (kPa)δ tell-tale - deflection at the bottom of the pier (mm)σ – stiffness of the pier (kPa)Ratio δ tell-tale / δ top = δ tell-tale /10mmCon<strong>version</strong>s:1 m = 3.3 ft1 mm = 0.0394 in1 kPa = 0.145 psi1 kg/m 3 = 0.0624 pcfGroup efficiency values obtained in small-scale testing were also compared to the groupefficiency parameters obtained on full-scale piers tested by different researchers and are
122presented in Table 29. Similar comparison was made for stiffness modulus parameterbetween the small-scale and full-scale aggregate pier groups (Table 30Table 1).Table 29: Group efficiency comparison measurements for small and full-scale aggregatepiersGroup EfficiencyPier typeSmall-ScaleAggregate PiersGroup of 2 1.6-2.7Group of 3 -Full-Scale AggregatePierFull-Scale AggregatePier at loads < 150kNFull-Scale Aggregate Pierat loads > 150kNGroup of 4 1.0-2.3 1.0 1.0 4.7Group of 5 1.0-2.6Group of 6 1.2-4.0ReferencePresent studyresultsLawton and Warner,2004White et al., 2007Pier typeTable 30: Stiffness modulus for small and full-scale aggregate piersStiffness Modulus (kPa/mm)Small-ScaleAggregatePiersFull-ScaleAggregate PiersFull-Scale AggregatePiersSingle Pier 176-41 80-35 220-170Unit Cell 441-91Full-Scale AggregatePiersGroup of 2 630-215 175-125Group of 4 795-341 260-140Group of 5 1755-415 430-260Group of 6 1567-490Reference Present study White et al., 2007 Wissmann et al., 2007 Fox et al., 1998Aggregate Piers - Group Bearing CapacityUltimate bearing capacity was measured and supplemented with additional information andcalculations for pier and matrix soil areas under the footing:
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Engineering behavior of small-scale
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viLIST OF FIGURESFigure 1: Concept
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viiiFigure 62: Stress-settlement te
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xLIST OF TABLESTable 1: Stiffness m
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xiiLIST OF EQUATIONSEquation 1: Ult
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xivSymbol Description Unitsγ dry l
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1CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTIONIndustry Pr
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7MAKECAVITYPLACESTONE ATBOTTOM OFCA
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9Normal Stress, kPaShear Stress. kP
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11pier element for a maximum of 25
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13savings provided by the system (A
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15The bearing capacity accredited t
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17Equation 12: Load resistance prov
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19Soil conditions at the site were
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Settlement (mm)Settlement (mm)10202
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23Site soil conditions were describ
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25Article#ReferenceTable 2: Case st
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27Article#7ReferenceHughes andWithe
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29replaced with method of freezing
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UNREINFORCED COLUMNNO COLUMNREINFOR
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33The load carrying capacity was fo
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35Case 5 - Bachus and Barksdale, 19
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37full depth of the consolidated la
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39CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGYCr
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41itself was designed to be support
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43While it is obvious that the chan
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45To perform all the required testi
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47In the areas where access was lim
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49CBR from DCPThe California Bearin
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305 mm610 mm305 mm610 mm305 mm610 m
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53The process of using the Shelby t
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15881556144815591597154915271586158
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57Table 14: Top and bottom UC loess
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59Data Collection and SensorsHaving
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61Micro Epsilon displacement transd
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63plate down the cavity through man
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65Beveled Tamper HeadsThe other asp
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67All, aggregate, cementitious and
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69DAQ Data CollectionWhile performi
Page 86 and 87: 71space in the test bed (See Figure
Page 88 and 89: 73(a)(b)(c)Figure 42: Test bed grou
Page 90 and 91: 75CHAPTER 4: MATERIALSThe materials
Page 92 and 93: 7710080LL = 31PI = 7Pass. #200 = 98
Page 94 and 95: 79the second stage of testing. Mois
Page 96 and 97: 81Knowing the gradation characteris
Page 98 and 99: 83More importantly, the performed d
Page 100 and 101: 85Figure 49: Cement type I compound
Page 102 and 103: 87As the expansive and contractive
Page 104 and 105: 89Figure 55: 19 mm polypropylene fi
Page 106 and 107: 91CHAPTER 5: TEST RESULTS AND ANALY
Page 108 and 109: 93Applied stress at top of pier (kP
Page 110 and 111: 95Figure 60: Stress-settlement test
Page 116 and 117: 101Figure 66: Stress-settlement tes
Page 120 and 121: 105Settlement (mm)024681012Applied
Page 122 and 123: 107to the maximum displacement of 1
Page 124 and 125: 109The failure mechanism of other p
Page 126 and 127: 1113000Measured Bearing Capacity (k
Page 128 and 129: 113Applied stress at bottom of the
Page 134 and 135: 119Settlement (mm)0246810Applied st
Page 138 and 139: 123Pier typeAggregate PierUnit Cell
Page 146 and 147: 131Applied stress at bottom of the
Page 148 and 149: 133Table 33: Group efficiency compa
Page 150 and 151: 135Having a limited amount of exper
Page 152 and 153: 137Stiffness, kPa/mm600500400300200
Page 154 and 155: 139In case with the piers consistin
Page 156 and 157: 141Table 36: Stiffness ratio calcul
Page 158 and 159: 143Some of the loess composition pi
Page 160 and 161: 145Pier typeAggregatePierSingle Pie
Page 162 and 163: 147Another observation was made, wh
Page 164 and 165: 149As previously outlined, the stif
Page 166 and 167: 151pier group efficiency values wer
Page 168 and 169: Stiffness Ratio1538Figure 91: Stiff
Page 170 and 171: 155CHAPTER 7: SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIO
Page 172 and 173: 157MaterialsLoess-CementVery intrig
Page 174 and 175: 159Groups of PiersGroup of Aggregat
Page 176 and 177: 161CHAPTER 8: FUTURE RESEARCHThe fu
Page 178 and 179: 163Black, J.A., Sivakumar, V., Madh
Page 180 and 181: 165Hanlong, L., An, D., and Yang, S
Page 182 and 183: 167Randrup T.B., and Lichter, J.M.
Page 184 and 185: 169Yeh, Y.K., and Mo, Y.L. (2005).
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171Group EfficiencyAggregate Pier G
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173Aggregate Pier305mm Wedge HeadDC
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175Loess + Fibers305mm Single PierD
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177Sand305mm Single PierDCPI, mm/bl
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179Aggregate Pier305mm Group of 4DC
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181C(I) + C(K)305mm Group of 4DCPI,
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183Aggregate Pier305mm Wedge HeadCB
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185Loess + Fibers305mm Single PierC
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187Sand305mm Single PierCBR, %0 2 4
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189Aggregate Pier305mm Group of 4CB
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191C(I) + C(K)305mm Group of 4CBR,
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