The U.S. <strong>Climate</strong> <strong>Change</strong> <strong>Science</strong> <strong>Program</strong> Chapter 5Methane emissions from natural wetlands aresensitive to temperature and moisture (seebelow), and thus to climate variability andchange. Emissions can also be influenced byanthropogenic activities that impact wetlandssuch as pollution loading (e.g., Gauci et al.,2004), land management (e.g., Minkkinen etal., 1997), and water management (e.g., St.Louis et al., 2000). While these anthropogenicimpacts can be expected to change in the comingdecades, they are unlikely to be a sourceof abrupt changes in methane emissions fromnatural wetlands, so this section will focus onclimate change impacts.Global climate-model projections suggest thatthe tropics, on average, and the northern highlatitudes are likely to become warmer andwetter during the 21st century, with greaterchanges at high latitudes (Chapman and Walsh,2007; Meehl et al., 2007). Temperatures in thetropics by 2100 are projected to increase by2–4 °C (Meehl et al., 2007). Precipitation in thetropics is expected to increase in East Africaand Southeast Asia, show little change in WestAfrica and Amazonia, and decrease in CentralAmerica and northern South America (Meehlet al., 2007).Warming in the northern high latitudes in recentdecades has been stronger than in the rest ofthe world (Serreze and Francis, 2006), and thattrend is projected to continue, with multimodelprojections indicating that arctic land areascould warm by between 3.5 and 8 °C by 2100(Meehl et al., 2007). The northern high latitudesare also expected to see an increase in precipitationby more than 20% in winter and by morethan 10% in summer. <strong>Climate</strong> change of thismagnitude is expected to have diverse impactson the arctic climate system (Hassol, 2004),including the methane cycle. Principal amongthe projected impacts is that soil temperaturesare expected to warm and permafrost, whichis prevalent across much of the northern highlatitudes, is expected to thaw and degrade.Permafrost thaw may alter the distribution ofwetlands and lakes through soil subsidence andchanges in local hydrological conditions. Sincemethane production responds positively to soilmoisture and summer soil temperature, the projectedstrong warming and associated landscapechanges expected in the northern high latitudes,coupled with the large carbon source (northernpeatlands have ~250 GtC as peat within 1 to afew meters of the atmosphere; Turunen et al.,2002), will likely lead to an increase in methaneemissions over the coming century.6.2 Factors Controlling MethaneEmissions From Natural WetlandsMethane is produced as a byproduct of microbialdecomposition of organic matter under anaerobicconditions that are typical of saturatedsoils and wetlands. As this methane migratesfrom the saturated soil to the atmosphere (viamolecular diffusion, ebullition (bubbling), orplant-mediated transport), it can be oxidizedto carbon dioxide by microbial methanotrophsin oxygenated sediment or soil. In wetlands, asignificant fraction of the methane producedis oxidized by methanotrophic bacteria beforereaching the atmosphere (Reeburgh, 2004).If the rate of methanogenesis is greater thanthe rate of methanotrophy and pathways formethane to diffuse through the soil are available,then methane is emitted to the atmosphere.Dry systems, where methanotrophy exceedsmethanogenesis, can act as weak sinks foratmospheric methane (see Table 5.1). Methaneemissions are extremely variable in space andtime, and therefore it is difficult to quantifyregional-scale annual emissions (Bartlett andHarriss, 1993; Melack et al., 2004). Recentreports of a large source (62–236 Tg CH 4 yr –1 )of methane from an aerobic process in plants(Keppler et al., 2006) appear to be overstated(Dueck et al., 2007; Wang et al., 2008).There are relatively few field studies of methanefluxes from tropical wetlands around the world,but work in the Amazon and Orinoco Basinsof South America has shown that methaneemissions appear to be most strongly controlledin aquatic habitats by inundation depth andvegetation cover (e.g., flooded forest, floatingmacrophytes, open water) (Devol et al., 1990;Bartlett and Harriss, 1993; Smith et al., 2000;Melack et al., 2004). Wet season (high water)fluxes are generally higher than dry season(low water) fluxes (Bartlett and Harriss, 1993).At high latitudes, the most important factorsinfluencing methane fluxes are water tabledepth, soil or peat temperature, substrate typeand availability, and vegetation type (Fig. 5.13).194
Abrupt <strong>Climate</strong> <strong>Change</strong>Water table depth determines both the fractionof the wetland soil or peat that is anaerobicand the distance from this zone of methaneproduction to the atmosphere (i.e., the lengthof the oxidation zone) and is often the singlemost important factor controlling emissions(Bubier et al., 1995; Waddington et al., 1996;MacDonald et al., 1998). The strong sensitivityof CH 4 emissions to water table positionsuggests that changing hydrology of northernwetlands under climate change could drive largeshifts in associated methane emissions.Vegetation type controls plant litter tissuequality/decomposability, methanogen substrateinput by root exudation (e.g., Kingand Reeburgh, 2002), and the potential forplant-mediated transport of methane to theatmosphere (e.g., King et al., 1998; Joabsson andChristensen, 2001). Substrate type and quality,generally related to quantity of root exudationand to vegetation litter quality and degree ofdecomposition, can directly affect potentialmethane production. Vegetation productivitycontrols the amount of organic matter availablefor decomposition.In wetland ecosystems, when the water tableis near the surface and substantial methaneemissions occur, the remaining controlling factorsrise in relevance. Christensen et al. (2003)find that temperature and microbial substrateavailability together explain almost 100% ofthe variations in mean annual CH 4 emissionsacross a range of sites across Greenland,Iceland, Scandinavia, and Siberia. Bubier et al.(1995) find a similarly strong dependence onsoil temperature at a northern peatland complexin Canada. The observed strong relationshipbetween CH 4 emissions and soil temperaturereflects the exponential increase in microbialactivity as soil temperatures warm. The strongwarming expected across the northern highlatitudes is likely to be a positive feedback onmethane emissions.The presence or absence of permafrost canalso have a direct influence on CH 4 emissions.Across the northern high latitudes, permafrostfeatures such as ice wedges, ice lenses,thermokarst, and ice heaving determine thesurface microtopography. Small variations insurface topography have a strong bearing onplant community structure and evolution as wellas soil hydrologic and nutritional conditions(Jorgenson et al., 2001, 2006), all of whichare controlling factors for methane emission.Projections of future methane emission arehampered by the difficulty of modeling landscapeand watershed hydrology well enoughat large scales to realistically represent smallchanges in wetland water table depth.Mean CH 4 flux (mg/m 2 /d) Mean CH 4 flux (mg/m 2 /d)10001001014 6 8 10 12 14 16Mean temp at water table (C)Methane vs. water table100010010Methane vs. temperature1-100 0 100 200 300 400 500Height above mean water table (mm)Figure 5.13. Relationships between water table height,temperature, and methane emissions for northern wetlandsfrom Bubier et al. (1995). Abbreviations: mg/m 2 /d, milligrams persquare meter per day; mm, millimeters; C, degrees Celsius.195
Change language