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J. R. Goicoechea et al.: The ionization fraction gradient across the Horsehead edge: an archetype for molecular clouds 777tel-00726959, version 1 - 31 Aug 2012increased. However, we do not model the PDR gas dynamics andthus processes such as shock waves, driven by the expansion ofthe H ii region that compress the cloud edge, may provide additionalgas heating sources to trigger this warm chemistry. Thisreasoning is partially consistent with the non detection of CO +lines, at least at the sensitivity level of our long integration observation(rms ∼ 50 mK in a 0.20 km s −1 velocity width channelor [CO + ] ≤ 5 × 10 −13 ).If the gas in the PDR has not gone through such a warmphase, reaction 8 has to be ruled out as the main chemical pathwayfor HOC + formation and an alternative formation scenariois required. In this case, we propose that the enhanced HOC +abundance in the PDR can still be related to the high abundanceof C + (and thus high ionization fraction), but also to grain photodesorptionof water-ice mantles formed in earlier evolutionarystages of the cloud.In this picture, the low χ/n ratio in the Horsehead(∼10 −3 ) will allow water-ices to be photodesorbed closeto the illuminated edge of the cloud (see predictions byHollenbach et al. 2009), increasing the water vapor abundancewell above the pure gas phase predictions. Reaction 7 will thendominate the HOC + formation in the PDR. Taking into accountthat isomerization, dissociative recombination and photodissociationcontribute to HOC + destruction, we estimate that the requiredwater vapor abundance needed to explain the inferredHOC + abundance in the PDR is [H 2 O] ≃ 1800 × [HOC + ] ≃(0.7−2.2) × 10 −8 . Herschel Space Observatory observations willenable the detection of C + and H 2 O lines in a large sample ofPDRs, confirming whether or not water vapor is abundant at theedges of molecular clouds (e.g., Cernicharo et al. 2006).5. Determination of the ionization fractionFigure 4 presents depth–dependent predictions of several photochemicalmodels across the Horsehead edge. Each model showsthe main physical parameters (density and temperature), the ionizationfraction gradient, the DCO + ,H 13 CO + and HOC + abundances(our observational probes of the ionization fraction) andthe abundances of key chemical species for the charge balancein the cloud: CO/C/C + ,M/M + ,PAH − /PAH/PAH + .Four sets of models are displayed. Top/bottom models usea low (ζ = 3 × 10 −17 s −1 )andhigh (ζ = 3 × 10 −16 s −1 )cosmicrayionization rate respectively. Left/right models exclude and includethe effects of PAHs. In the latter case, we include PAHs inthe UV radiative transfer (as a source of absorption and scatteringof UV photons), in the photoelectric heating and in the chemicalnetwork. We start the chemistry computation by includingneutral PAHs alone with an initial abundance of [PAH] = 10 −7 .In each set of models (each panel), the only parameter that variesis the abundance of metals: high metallicity with [M] = 10 −6(dashed curves) and low metallicity with [M] = 10 −9 (solidcurves). The low metallicity case implies a large metal depletionfrom the gas phase.In terms of the chemical species observed in this work,a salient feature of all models is the constancy of theDCO + /H 13 CO + abundance ratio once the gas is shielded fromUV radiation (A V 6). This feature agrees with the almostidentical spatial distribution of DCO + and H 13 CO + emission observedbeyond the PDR (see Fig. 1). This similarity was alreadynoticed in the lower resolution DCO + and H 13 CO + pioneeringmaps of several molecular clouds (e.g., Guélin et al. 1982).Also, the predicted [HOC + ]/[H 13 CO + ] abundance ratio towardsthe PDR is in good agreement with the value inferred fromobservations. In this UV irradiated region where the C + andelectron abundances are very high, the HCO + destruction ratebecomes comparable to the isomerization rate (reaction 9). Thisimplies that the [HOC + ]/[H 13 CO + ] abundance ratio in the cloudachieves the highest value in the PDR.5.1. The role of ionized carbon and metalsAccording to the ionization fraction gradient all models showtwo differentiated environments separated by a transition region:the “PDR” (A V ≃ 0–2) and the “shielded core” (A V 6). Theelectron density at every cloud position is given by the differenceof cations and anions densities;∑∑n e = n i (cations + ) − n j (anions − ). (10)ijIn the PDR, carbon, the most abundant heavy element with aionization potential below 13.6 eV, provides most of the charge:n(e − ) ≃ n(C + ). Therefore, the ionization fraction in the PDRis high, [e − ] ∼ 10 −4 , and independent of elemental abundancesother than carbon.As A V increases inwards the cloud, the C + abundance decreasesby several orders of magnitude and so does the abundanceof electrons. In the shielded core (A V 6), low ionizationheavy metal ions (e.g., Fe + ,Mg + or Na + ) determine muchof the ionization fraction (Oppenheimer & Dalgarno 1974;Guélin et al. 1982). In the absence of PAHs, abundant molecularions m + transfer charge rapidly to heavy metal atoms M throughm + + M → m + M + reactions. Metal ions recombine orders ofmagnitude slower than molecular ions (Table 4), and thus a largefraction of them is kept ionized (higher [M] implies higher electronabundances). Therefore, the ionization fraction in the coreis highly dependent on the adopted metallicity, and varies fromafew×10 −9 for [M] = 10 −9 ,toafew×10 −7 for [M] = 10 −6 .5.2. The role of PAHsDepending on their abundances, the presence of PAHs can alterthe chemistry and the ionization balance in dense clouds(e.g., Lepp & Dalgarno 1988). For our adopted abundance of[PAH] = 10 −7 the right and left panels in Fig. 4 shows thatthe presence of PAHs most modifies the ionization fraction atA V 2. Hence, if not all PAHs accrete onto bigger grains or coagulatetowards cloud interiors, PAH − can be abundant throughthe cloud because the radiative electron attachment ratePAH + e − → PAH − + hν (11)is high (≥10 −7 cm 3 s −1 ), although probably dependenton the PAH size (Omont 1986; Allamandola et al. 1989;Flower et al. 2007; Wakelam & Herbst 2008). In the shieldedcore PAH − is destroyed by recombination with atomic (M + ,...)and molecular cations (HCO + ,H 3 O + ,...) which are orders ofmagnitude less abundant than the available cations in the PDR(C + ,S + ,...). Negative PAH ions thus reach high abundances([PAH − ] ≃ 2 × 10 −8 ). For our choice of PAH parameters,this means that PAH − can be the most abundant negativelycharged species, more than electrons for A V ≥ 5. In addition,recombination of atomic ions on PAH − is by far more efficientthan the slow radiative recombination on electrons. This is avery important point since heavy metal ions and molecularions are now neutralized at similar rates. As a result, both theabundance of metal cations and the ionization fraction decreaseswhen PAHs are included, while molecular ions such as H 13 CO +and DCO + increase their abundances (see Fig. 4 right panels).
778 J. R. Goicoechea et al.: The ionization fraction gradient across the Horsehead edge: an archetype for molecular cloudstel-00726959, version 1 - 31 Aug 2012No PAHs; low CR rateNo PAHs; high CR rateWith PAHs; low CR rateWith PAHs; high CR rateFig. 4. Grid of chemical models for 2 different metal abundances, low-metallicity with [M] = 10 −9 (strong metal depletion case, solid curves) andhigh-metallicity with [M] = 10 −6 (weak metal depletion case, dashed curves). “Low CR rate” refers to models with ζ = 3 × 10 −17 s −1 while modelswith “high CR rate” refer to ζ = 3 × 10 −16 s −1 . Models “with PAH” include PAH-gas interactions in the chemical network (with [PAH] = 10 −7 )while models with “no PAH” are pure gas-phase models. The black empty square represents the [HOC + ]/[H 13 CO + ] abundance ratio inferredtowards the PDR from observations. The blue and red empty squares represent the DCO + and H 13 CO + abundances derived towards the core.
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UNIVERSITÉ PIERRE ET MARIE CURIEHA
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Table des matières1 Rapport de sou
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Rapport après soutenanceHabilitati
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Chapitre 2Curriculum vitaetel-00726
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2.7 ANIMATION ET DIFFUSION DE LA CU
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2.8 PARCOURS 131992-1993 ÉCOLE NOR
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Chapitre 3Copyright: IRAM/PdBIIntro
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4.2 ETUDES DIRECTES EN ÉMISSION 19
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4.4 LA LUMINOSITY CO PAR MOLÉCULE
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