Synthesis of Existing Knowledge and Experience on the Provision of ...

excessive <strong>and</strong> uncontrolled use <strong>of</strong> water infrastructure leading to breakage <strong>and</strong> water shortages,deforestation for charcoal production, reduction <strong>of</strong> available palatable perennial grass, overabstraction<strong>and</strong> lowering <strong>of</strong> the water table, salinization <strong>and</strong> salt-water intrusion, <strong>and</strong> conflict overthe control <strong>of</strong> water points.In Ethiopia negative consequences related to size <strong>and</strong> capacity <strong>of</strong> water points have been identifiedby researchers since the 1980s, most notably since the Rangel<strong>and</strong> Development Project <strong>of</strong> the late1970s. However, this body <strong>of</strong> work is rarely used to inform development <strong>and</strong> relief projectprogramming. There are some notable <strong>and</strong> significant exceptions however among government,donors <strong>and</strong> NGOs, who have recognized that large capacity or permanent water points encouragesettlements with associated reductions in mobility <strong>and</strong> rangel<strong>and</strong> quality. The GWI’s (Section 3.1.3.1;p. 47) recently developed Integrated Water Resource Management strategy for Borana zonementions that permanent water points constructed in the rangel<strong>and</strong>s are likely to affect mobility(such as deep wells <strong>and</strong> permanent ponds 54 ) <strong>and</strong> are more contentious than those which extendwater availability for a few months. It also mentions that smaller capacity systems are less likely to beproblematic (Pankhurst, 2009; see table 5 in previous sections for further information).Government programs also recognize the potential implications <strong>of</strong> large or permanent water points.Highlights include:• The MoFA’s PCDP (Section 3.1.2.3: p.28), which highlights that smaller temporary watercatchments are more suitable in wet season grazing areas to avoid settlement <strong>and</strong> its associatedproblems. It also emphasizes the rehabilitation <strong>of</strong> existing water points <strong>and</strong> enabling pastoralaccess to rivers in dry season grazing areas. This is to make the most <strong>of</strong> what is already there<strong>and</strong> to sidestep altogether, where possible, any contentious issues that may arise from theconstruction <strong>of</strong> new water points.• The MoWR’s WSSP (Section 3.1.2.3: p.33), which recognizes the negative impacts associatedwith large capacity water points in the rangel<strong>and</strong>s. It recommends that points not exceed a sizewhich waters a maximum <strong>of</strong> 4,500 cattle a day, <strong>and</strong> that points should be spaced about 20kmapart.• The government’s PSNP for pastoral areas (Section 3.1.2.3: p.39), which plans to constructpublic works in the rangel<strong>and</strong>s in ways which do not interfere with mobility systems by ensuringclose collaboration with pastoralists at the local level <strong>and</strong> contextualizing developments withinlivelihood <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong>scape zones.A lesser acknowledged issue is that associated with birkado, especially in Somali region. Originallyintended as temporary water catchments, these structures now tend to function as year-roundwater sources thanks to refilling via water tankering. Associated with this trend is the establishment<strong>of</strong> permanent settlements, which has seen some <strong>of</strong> the previously mentioned impacts manifestedacross the region. Even though a lot <strong>of</strong> birkado construction was (<strong>and</strong> is) instigated by pastoralists,pastoralists themselves have become more aware <strong>of</strong> the negative impacts <strong>of</strong> this type <strong>of</strong> waterdevelopment <strong>and</strong> also vocal about ways to mitigate them. Gomes (2007) notes that traditional xeeragreements 55 have emerged in parts <strong>of</strong> Somali region to limit the establishment <strong>of</strong> new watersources around existing settlements as well as in wet season grazing areas. These agreements54 Recently birkado have been added to this list, as they function as year round water sources thanks tocontinuous refilling via water trucking, especially prevalent in Somali region (Beruk Yemane, Oxfam GBPastoral Program Coordinator <strong>and</strong> Ced Hesse, IIED Principal Researcher, Climate Change Group, personalcommunications)55 Traditional agreements between elders <strong>of</strong> structurally distant groups on the ethnic Somali genealogicalcharter (Gomes, 2007).73