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Chapter 20: Radiation Detection and Measurement 639TABLE 20-1. INORGANIC SCINTILLATORS USED IN MEDICAL IMAGINGWavelengthAfterglowof maximal Conversion Decay afterAtomic Density emission efficiency" constant 3 msecMaterial numbers (g/cm3 ) (nm) (%) (~s) (%) UsesNal(TJ) 11,53 3.67 415 100 0.23 0.3-5 ScintillationcamerasBi.Ge30,2 83,32,8 7.13 480 12-14 0.3 0.1 Position emissiontomographyscannersCsl(Na) 55,53 4.51 420 85 0.63 0.5-5 Input phosphorof imageintensifiertubesCsl(TI) 55,53 4.51 565 45b 1.0 0.5-5 Indirectdetectionthin-filmtransistorradiographicimagereceptorsZnCdS(Ag) 30,48, 16 Output phosphorof imageintensifierCdWO. 48,74,8 7.90 540 40 5 0.1 ComputedtomographicscannersCaWO. 20,74,8 6.12 14-18 0.9-20 RadiographicscreensGd202S(Tb) 64,8,16 7.34 560 Radiographictubesscreens"Relative to Nal(T/J, using a photomultiplier tube to measure light.bThe light emitted by Csl(TI) does not match the spectral sensitivity of photomultiplier tubes very well; its conversion efficiency ismuch larger, if measured with a photodiode.Source: Data courtesy Sicron, Saint-Gobain/Norton Industrial Ceramics Corporation.many indirect-detection thin-film transistor radiographic image receptors,described in Chapter 11. Cesium iodide activated with sodium is used as the inputphosphor and zinc cadmium sulfide activated with silver is used as the output phosphorof image-intensifier tubes.Scintillators coupled to photodiodes are used as the detectors in most CT scanners.The extremely high x-ray flux experienced by the detectors necessitates currentmode operation to avoid dead-time effects. With the rotational speed of CT scannersapproaching half a second, the scintillators used in CT must have very littleafterglow. Cadmium tungstate and gadolinium ceramics are scintiIIators commonlyused in CT. Table 20-1 lists the properties of several inorganic crystalline scintiIlatorsof importance in radiology and nuclear medicine.Conversion of Light into an Electrical SignalPhotomultiplierTubesPMTs perform two functions-conversion of ultraviolet and visible light photonsinto an electrical signal and signal amplification, on the order of millions to billions.As shown in Fig. 20-8, a PMT consists of an evacuated glass tube containing a photocathode,typically 10 to 12 electrodes called dynodes, and an anode. The photo-
Page 14:
Preface xvAcknowledgmentsForeword x
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Chapter 9: Fluoroscopy 2319.1 Funct
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16.3 Transducers 48316.4 Beam Prope
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B.3 Radiological Data for Elements
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We are deeply grateful to that part
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Can medical physics be interesting
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INTRODUCTION TO MEDICALIMAGINGMedic
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FIGURE 1-2. The chest x-ray is them
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FIGURE 1-4. A computed tomography (
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angles around the patient. These pr
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FIGURE '-8. Sagittal (upper left),
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ducer, which records the returning
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TABLE 1-1. THE LIMITING SPATIAL RES
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WAVELENGTH(nanometers)FREQUENCY(her
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The physical properties of the most
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The energy required to remove an el
Page 88:
An electron cascade does not always
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160150140130120110100N
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The binding energy can be calculate
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INTERACTION OF RADIATIONWITH MATTER
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x10 3 7becomes electrically neutral
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Electrons can undergo inelastic int
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The nuclide produced by neutron abs
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Compton scattering results in the i
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CharacteristicX-rays:A: 0.6 keV (N~
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10030 \~ r.." Photoelectric Effect
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Attenuation is the removal of photo
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The relationship between material d
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HVL). Most practical applications o
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MFP = 1- = __ 1__ = 1.44 HVLI.l 0.6
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For x- and gamma rays, kerma can be
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1 R = 2.58 X 10- 4 C/kg (exactly)Ra
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TABLE 3-4. RADIATION WEIGHTING FACT
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TABLE 3-6. RADIOLOGICAL QUANTITIES,
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Computers were originally designed
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TABLE 4-2. CONVERSION OF 42 (DECIMA
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Binary Representationof Signed Inte
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Chapter 4: Computers in Medical Ima
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TABLE 4-5. MAXIMAL ERRORS WHEN DIFF
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Main memory is used for these funct
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A CPU fetches and executes the inst
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FIGURE 4-6. Hard-disk drive. Aread/
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Table 4-6 compares the characterist
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erwise identical, the computer with
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function, such as a disk head crash
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Scintillation camera planarSPECTPET
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(1.4 MB/disk)(l,024 2 bytes/MB)/[(6
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DAC converts each digital number to
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UnpolarizedlightHorizontallypolariz
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FIGURE 4-15. Graphs of four transla
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For example, it is often useful to
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X-RAY PRODUCTION, X-RAYTUBES, AND G
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1 _2 -3-1Impact with nucleus:Maximu
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FIGURE 5-4. Generation of a charact
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Cable sockets ~FIGURE 5-6. The majo
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~C1.61.41.2 _~ 1.0::l0 0.8Q).00.62-
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Rotor~~ ~+-statorFIGURE 5-11. The a
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There are three major tradeoffs to
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FIGURE 5-16. Various tools allow me
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5.3 X-RAY TUBE INSERT, TUBE HOUSING
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TABLE 5-3. MINIMUM HALF VALUE LAYER
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Induced electronflow in conductorRe
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Power is the rate of energy product
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used to modulate voltage, autotrans
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mAand mAscontrolPhototimercircuitsF
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(a)Electron flow through single rec
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asic components of a single-phase t
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In three-phase generator designs, h
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greater overall input power). Next,
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nected to the contactors that dose
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600500~5 4001:~•..=:l()300Q).0=:l
Page 314:
100% Ripple \5% Ripple /\ ••.-
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TABLE 5-6. X-RAY TUBE FOCAL SPOTSIZ
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Chapter 5: X-Ray Production, X-Ray
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of the chart. Like the single-expos
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Projection radiography, the first r
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IEi\\i~eFIGURE 6-2. The sides andhe
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sure on the screens, the cassette m
Page 342:
version efficiency, the approximate
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(and vice versa). This phenomenon i
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~80o"-'"{)' 70c.~ 60lij 50c.240 .
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film OD. If the screen is made thic
Page 358:
Film has excellent spatial resoluti
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-(/l~ 2.0-c:8 1.51.0-(/l~ 2.0-c:8 1
Page 366:
educed latitude. The shaded region
Page 370:
TABLE 6-2. TISSUE HALF-VALUELAYERS
Page 374:
PrimaryScatterFIGURE 6-22. A: Scatt
Page 378:
ferent locations from within the pa
Page 382:
lar to the direction of the slits.
Page 386:
FIGURE 6-30. Air gap geometry canre
Page 392:
silver halidecrystalssensitivityspe
Page 396:
•FIGURE 7-3. The fate of an expos
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DeveloperActivatorRestrainerPreserv
Page 404:
increased too much because the numb
Page 408:
can be achieved. Film manufacturers
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Modern x-ray equipment is computer
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wee en0.25Ol0U. 0.20+Q)(f) 0.15COCO
Page 422:
Mammography is a radiographic exami
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Other modalities that have been use
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plished by magnetic induction. A so
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ReferenceAxisCentra0AxisProjectedfo
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30 kVp26 kVp30 kVp26 kVp(b)2.01.81.
Page 442:
OJE 25.E(fl.9 20o~ 15"'___ to 45 x
Page 446:
TABLE 8-2. REQUIREMENTS FOR MINIMUM
Page 450:
TerminationCircuitFIGURE 8-15. The
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simulations and experimental measur
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1.21.11.00.90.80.70.60.50.40.30.20.
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2!£.= 1.85 xSODSOD35cmSID65cmOlD30
Page 466:
Film BaseFilm EmulsionPhosphor Scre
Page 470:
equiring a compensatory increase in
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0.25 -Base + Fog0.20Density 0.150.1
Page 478:
characteristic curves, the correspo
Page 482:
achieving a pixel size at the image
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Chapter 8: Mammography 223TABLE 8-6
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ifies that the mammography facility
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TABLE 8-9. SUMMARY TABLE OF ANNUAL
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preting radiologists, mammography t
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with the fluoroscopy imaging chain
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FIGURE 9-4. A scanningelectron micr
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cm 2 area of the 9-inch-diameter in
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_ 100~I 20 em patient ~~•.... _~-
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Video CamerasGeneral OperationThe c
Page 524:
FIGURE 9-11. The flat panelimaging
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higher. Cine radiography uses very
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put, and consequently frame averagi
Page 536:
contrast" selections on the console
Page 540:
specific applications, such as GIIG
Page 544:
3'2'E~wtJ)w 0.3~,======_o~"~~--;~ _
Page 548:
time estimate of the amount of radi
Page 552:
.~! ~i !j t--------------Ij• •s
Page 556:
'E 2O . O 80(,)~ 100_70-~0CIlIIIr::
Page 560:
40003500CIl 3000::s~ 2500CIlB 2000U
Page 564:
can be radically changed. Therefore
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FIGURE 10-10. A: An isometric displ
Page 572:
FIGURE 10-13. Some physical mechani
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some clinical applications, the blu
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would correspond to 1 cycle/mm. If
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I;:' 0.6irI-:!: 0.41.0 2.0 3.0 4.0S
Page 588:
or stochastic component into the im
Page 592:
~~2IIIs:::I I>o40 60 80 100 120 140
Page 596:
The term quantum is defined as "som
Page 600:
Stage Description System P System Q
Page 604:
.g tides:eis.Ec(~ co~o o 2 4 6 8 10
Page 608:
detectorelements[-I I detector aper
Page 612:
Since most patient anatomy does not
Page 616:
detail curves are commonly used in
Page 620:
actually calls nor-The specificity
Page 626:
Digital radiographic image receptor
Page 630:
-8 0.8:J:=~0.6«g! 0.4:;:;ellGi0::
Page 634:
to a very bright light source, whic
Page 638:
Lens Coupled Intensifying ScreenFIG
Page 642:
discretedetectorelementsFIGURE 11-7
Page 646:
light sensitive areaFill Factor = a
Page 650:
for digital stereotactic biopsy. Br
Page 654:
Because the slot width (4 mm) is mu
Page 658:
One of the advantages of having an
Page 662:
ness. Windowing and leveling of a d
Page 666:
nel is called a delta function,anyw
Page 670:
pixels are averaged to go from a 51
Page 674:
Geometric tomography, also called b
Page 678:
ground anatomy causes geometric tom
Page 682:
of relatively rapid readout, allowi
Page 686:
system, the amount of vascular sten
Page 690:
dual-energy subtraction is availabl
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point on the image. Consequently, w
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FIGURE 13-3. Computedtomographic (C
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FIGURE 13-5. First-generation (rota
Page 708:
FIGURE 13-7. Third-generation (rota
Page 712:
FIGURE 13-10. The fan beam geometry
Page 716:
helical x-ray tubepath around patie
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septa that separate the individual
Page 724:
detector array modules. With a trad
Page 728:
Slice Thickness: MultipleDetector A
Page 732:
This implies that the upper limit o
Page 736:
FIGURE 13-22. An image of a test ob
Page 740:
The constant ~t factors out, result
Page 744:
6 8A+B=77 A+C=6A+D=57 B+C=9B+D=8C+D
Page 748:
simple backprojection, p(x) is back
Page 752:
The units for the x-axis in Fig. 13
Page 756:
msec is preprocessed, mathematicall
Page 760:
FIGURE 13-33. The coronal, sagittal
Page 764:
ware through the volume data set, f
Page 768:
of CT slices. The MSAD could be mea
Page 772:
position along torsoFIGURE 13-37. D
Page 776:
Factors AffectingSpatial Resolution
Page 780:
x-ray beam hardeningFIGURE 13-38. T
Page 784:
FIGURE 13-41. A partialvolume artif
Page 788:
motion of the electrons in either a
Page 792:
Biologically relevant elements that
Page 796:
FIGURE 14-4. A: A single proton pre
Page 800:
FIGURE 14-5. A: The laboratory fram
Page 804:
magnetic field are separated by an
Page 808:
8 1 at Larmor FrequencyzMot:/81....
Page 812:
The "decay" of the FID envelope is
Page 816:
method to determine the T1 time of
Page 820:
50 msec). Molecular motion, size, a
Page 824:
TEI'I180 0 EchoRotatingframe./FID s
Page 828:
--_. unsaturatedpartiallysaturated:
Page 832:
the figure on the left (longitudina
Page 836:
Imageintensit)GrayWhiteFat1000 2000
Page 840:
TRTERFpulses90 0readout~~~~~~--n~18
Page 844:
Transverse decay (T2)Imageintensit~
Page 848:
Rotating frame../FIGURE 14-29. Grad
Page 852:
very shortTR. In these two regimes,
Page 856:
FIGURE 14-32. A spoiled transverse
Page 860:
acquired. Because the BOLD sequence
Page 864:
412 Section II: Diagnostic Radiolog
Page 870:
MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING(MRI)The
Page 874:
Net gradient = ~G 2 + G 2 + G 2x Y
Page 878:
strength, an applied RF pulse with
Page 882:
FIGURE 15-7. The width of the sinc
Page 886:
1•1 cycle/em :1::UAmplitude: 1.0~
Page 890:
positionally dependent phase shift
Page 894:
xImage (grayscalevalue)FIGURE 15-14
Page 898:
8. The final image is a spatial rep
Page 902:
~.......--, ----J+*-.J4~====~_~~.\-
Page 906:
FEG n n n IL.-ct--Echo ,I.16 ms 32
Page 910:
ing time is approximately equal to
Page 914:
sition of the signals (Fig. 15-24),
Page 918:
this is unacceptable for standard c
Page 922:
FIGURE 15-27. Evolution of a narrow
Page 926:
Unsaturated spins: high signalFlow-
Page 930:
volume and places this value in the
Page 934:
In MRI, artifacts manifest as posit
Page 938:
·······i..··I·I~IdealFIGU
Page 942:
FIGURE 15-33. A single bad pixel in
Page 946:
On Tl-weighted images of the head,
Page 950:
A higher frequency encode gradient
Page 954:
c:~...:L~"'FOii·"·"""~·~- ~; t--
Page 958:
purely resistive system is the abil
Page 962:
RF coils create the B 1 field that
Page 966:
86~~ c:~"0~"0m0::214Axial distance
Page 970:
15-2. Qualitative and quantitative
Page 974:
RF exposure causes heating of tissu
Page 980:
Transducer/ ArrayInterrogate bodywi
Page 984:
and its resistance to being com-ulu
Page 988:
are determined by the imaging appli
Page 992:
TABLE 16-2. DECIBEL VALUES. INTENSI
Page 996:
ZI = PICI~~IncidentReflection(echo)
Page 1000:
When C2 > Cl, the angle of transmis
Page 1004:
Penetrationdepth, cm(Distance trave
Page 1008:
Plastic CaseMetal shieldAcoustic ab
Page 1012:
~ ----+thicktransducer~ ----+thintr
Page 1016:
intermediate to those of soft tissu
Page 1020:
Linear ArraysLinear array transduce
Page 1024:
sound beam path is thus largely con
Page 1028:
phase differences of adjacent beams
Page 1032:
III ¢ __ Red;e'vane';ons-~Thicknes
Page 1036:
FIGURE 16-22. Axial resolution iseq
Page 1040:
One way to accomplish this is to ac
Page 1044:
Ultrasound equipment is rapidly evo
Page 1048:
TABLE 16-6. TYPICAL PRF, PRp, AND D
Page 1052:
(3) Demodulation and"Envelope" dete
Page 1056:
systems, and digitally in high-end
Page 1060:
drifted easily and were unstable ov
Page 1064:
State-of-the-art ultrasound scanner
Page 1068:
Image Frame Rate and Spatial Sampli
Page 1072:
els of gray scale. Image storage (w
Page 1076:
Based on the harmonic imaging work
Page 1080:
FIGURE 16-40. Conventional (left) a
Page 1084:
exactly phase reversed, and their s
Page 1088:
FIGURE 16-43. Three-dimensional ult
Page 1092:
occasionally induced by environment
Page 1096:
LiverBoundarydisplacementFIGURE 16-
Page 1100:
Blood moving towards transducerprod
Page 1104:
The continuous-wave Doppler system
Page 1108:
DopplerSignalLow frequencyDoppler s
Page 1112:
eam is aligned at a particular orie
Page 1116:
information is displayed on the vid
Page 1120:
Transducerarray &BeamFormerPulse-ec
Page 1124:
FIGURE 16-54. A comparison of color
Page 1128:
c024VerticalbandE 60..c8-0..(])0 10
Page 1132:
TABLE 16-8. RECOMMENDED QC TESTS FO
Page 1136:
In the pulsed mode of ultrasound op
Page 1140:
ecommends adherence to the ALARA pr
Page 1146:
COMPUTER NETWORKS, PACS,AND TELERAD
Page 1150:
tions protocols. Failure to conform
Page 1154:
The most common LAN medium is Ether
Page 1158:
nodes are both on the same segment
Page 1162:
physics/text will obtain, from a se
Page 1166:
can be programmed to read the traff
Page 1170:
CT North EJCT04_MRG1-:::S:::(Toshib
Page 1174:
a laser and the other using a colli
Page 1178:
(14 x 17 inch) film should be digit
Page 1182:
equipped with specialized software
Page 1186:
The storage may be centralized (i.e
Page 1190:
FIGURE 17-10. Interpretationworksta
Page 1194:
Spatial linearity (freedom from spa
Page 1198:
the faces of the monitors, and to a
Page 1202:
Disadvantagesof PACS1. Initial and
Page 1206:
ital portions of the system can deg
Page 1214:
RADIOACTIVITY AND NUCLEARTRANSFORMA
Page 1218:
TABLE 18-3. PHYSICAL HALF-LIFE (Tp1
Page 1222:
A plot on a lineat axis of activity
Page 1226:
Although the ~- particles emitted b
Page 1230:
The capture of an orbital electron
Page 1234:
RADON-220Alpha DecayT 1/2 = 55 seco
Page 1238:
TECHNETIUM 99MIsomeric TransitionT1
Page 1242:
RADIONUCLIDE PRODUCTION ANDRADIOPHA
Page 1246:
continue to acquire kinetic energy,
Page 1250:
come the nuclear binding forces. Th
Page 1254:
duced), the reactor is said to be s
Page 1258:
chemically separated from other fis
Page 1262: FIGURE 19-7. Picture of a "wet" mol
Page 1266: een achieved, the daughter activity
Page 1270: feres with the preparation of some
Page 1274: high abundance (94%), their low ene
Page 1278: Cell SequestrationRBCs are withdraw
Page 1282: ReceptorBindingThis class of radiop
Page 1286: closure of alternative treatments;
Page 1290: RADIATION DETECTION ANDMEASUREMENTT
Page 1294: Q)•..III•..a:c~010,000800060004
Page 1298: This equation can be written as fol
Page 1302: LimitedGeiger-MuellerRegionProporti
Page 1306: Unlike ion chambers, which can func
Page 1310: as well. However, most photodiodes
Page 1316: visiblelight -...photon+photocathod
Page 1320: In crystalline materials, electrons
Page 1324: of the diode and the negative polar
Page 1328: FIGURE 20-13. Function of asingle-c
Page 1332: Nal (TI)crystal..-r--..IIIIPMT...-r
Page 1336: Spectrum of Cesium-137The spectrum
Page 1340: with the emission of a 140.5-keV ga
Page 1344: FIGURE 20-22. Pulse pileup.The dash
Page 1348: distance, typically 20 to 25 cm, fr
Page 1352: its samples ofI-125 and Co-57 to ac
Page 1356: Dose Calibrator Quality AssuranceBe
Page 1360: Two measures of the central tendenc
Page 1364:
4Number of SuccessesFIGURE 20-28. B
Page 1368:
For example, a counr of 853 is obra
Page 1372:
entering the standard deviations fr
Page 1376:
dose to the patient, nearly all nuc
Page 1380:
PhotomultipliertubesLucite light pi
Page 1384:
PulsesfromindividualPMTsAnalogJ....
Page 1388:
the object is moved yet farther fro
Page 1392:
TABLE 21-1. COMPARISON OF SINGLE·P
Page 1396:
Some types of collimators magnify (
Page 1400:
the product of three factors: the c
Page 1404:
() 0.5c CD"0If=CD.>
Page 1408:
TABLE 21-3. THE EFFECT OF INCREASIN
Page 1412:
6.4 mm at 10 cm from the collimator
Page 1416:
Digital'positionZ correctionlookup
Page 1420:
two ways that scintillation cametas
Page 1424:
quency of this testing depends on t
Page 1428:
ufacturers incorporate a computer f
Page 1432:
FirstimageSecondimageThirdimageFour
Page 1436:
pool image sequence, using T c-99m-
Page 1440:
adionuclides in patients, using a p
Page 1444:
mator, which never enjoyed wide acc
Page 1448:
heads of a SPECT system produced id
Page 1452:
0.50.4CD"0:e0.3c.E 0.2
Page 1456:
No AttenuationCorrectionAttenuation
Page 1460:
camera heads that revolve about the
Page 1464:
In planar nuclear imaging, radioact
Page 1468:
FIGURE 22-10. Image of a cylinder f
Page 1472:
TABLE 22-1. RECOMMENDED SCHEDULE FO
Page 1476:
Design and Principles Of OperationA
Page 1480:
2 by 2 arrayof PMTs~Slits cut intoB
Page 1484:
To detect coincidences, the times o
Page 1488:
DetectorelementsSeptalcollimatorrin
Page 1492:
J......... ······~~~~~I thiC
Page 1496:
FIGURE 22-23. Attenuationin PET. Th
Page 1500:
511-keV collimators and because the
Page 1504:
A system provided by another vendor
Page 1508:
Madsen MT. The AAPM/RSNA physics tu
Page 1514:
It is incumbent upon all individual
Page 1518:
(5 mrad/hr), which is approximately
Page 1522:
combustible fuels, including coal a
Page 1526:
TABLE 23-3. AVERAGE ANNUAL OCCUPATI
Page 1530:
TABLE 23-6. ANNUAL GENETICALLY SIGN
Page 1534:
with conventional x-ray film, radia
Page 1538:
FIGURE 23-3. A small chip of LiF (r
Page 1542:
Method Measures Useful rangePermane
Page 1546:
FIGURE 23-6. Portable ion chamber.
Page 1550:
Inverse Square LawE 2 = E 1 (0 1 /0
Page 1554:
adherence to the methods in NCRP re
Page 1558:
espective distances to the point in
Page 1562:
Exposure per week contributed by th
Page 1566:
Primary, scatter, and leakage radia
Page 1570:
IStairwaygQlc..>c19'" 00Waitingarea
Page 1574:
e the minimal thickness recommended
Page 1578:
Personnel Protection in Diagnostic
Page 1582:
TABLE 23-14. EXPOSURE RATE CONSTANT
Page 1586:
Filtration of the polychromatic x-r
Page 1590:
out ABC. Some systems have a high e
Page 1594:
the physician with the ability to m
Page 1598:
nologist in the correct selection o
Page 1602:
ination should remove their protect
Page 1606:
labeled with 1-131. 1-131 decays wi
Page 1610:
Phosphorus-32 is used for the radio
Page 1614:
clides are the "Standards for Prote
Page 1618:
TABLE 23-18. NUCLEAR REGULATORY COM
Page 1622:
National Council on Radiation Prote
Page 1628:
section 3.5). The old term for ener
Page 1632:
TABLE 24-3. ABSORBED DOSES TO SELEC
Page 1636:
Medical x-ray imaging procedures su
Page 1640:
mAs, and the distance from x-ray so
Page 1644:
FIGURE 24-3. The geometry fordeterm
Page 1648:
FIGURE 24-4. Illustration ofSourceo
Page 1652:
FIGURE 24-6. The cumulated activity
Page 1656:
TABLE 24-9. VARIABLES IN THE MIRD S
Page 1660:
not currently require manufacturers
Page 1664:
TABLE 25-1. DETERMINANTS OF BIOLOGI
Page 1668:
Radia~?/ 1'{"l20 H+ ow\ Ionization
Page 1672:
cific ionization (i.e., ionization
Page 1676:
chromatid aberrations. Unlike chrom
Page 1680:
10~n ,,,,,,C), ,,I:Dq'S; 1.0 ------
Page 1684:
ClC 1.0oS;o~::JCJ)~G)0-0C0:;:;(JCIS
Page 1688:
mediated through free radical produ
Page 1692:
Radiationdose~~ANSYS~Dose too---. D
Page 1696:
to normal within 2 to 3 months. If
Page 1700:
dose delivered over a protracted pe
Page 1704:
diseases such as ataxia telangiecta
Page 1708:
The stages of the neurovascular syn
Page 1712:
Most of the radiation-induced biolo
Page 1716:
adiation, such as radiofrequency ra
Page 1720:
TABLE 25-7. SUMMARY OF MAJOR EPIDEM
Page 1724:
,.,,. ,,.,,.,,.ỊI"", ,I, IIIIIII"
Page 1728:
Radiationexposure1-",,II, II,,III,
Page 1732:
the overall risk and relative proba
Page 1736:
times greater risk for development
Page 1740:
Estimating Genetic RiskThe genetica
Page 1744:
sure, owing principally to the rela
Page 1748:
1/3 for mice). Nevertheless, develo
Page 1752:
Numberoccurring fromnatural causesE
Page 1756:
Prenatal death(Some survivors,no in
Page 1762:
APPENDICES
Page 1768:
OriginalVector (V)InternationalSyst
Page 1772:
PotentialEnergyPotential energy is
Page 1776:
When a charged particle is placed i
Page 1780:
The joule is a rather large unit of
Page 1784:
The band theory of solids explains
Page 1788:
FIGURE A-7. A spinning charge has a
Page 1792:
Magnetic field moving towards wire
Page 1796:
Static magnetic fieldRotating curre
Page 1802:
PHYSICAL CONSTANTS, PREFIXES,GEOMET
Page 1806:
Appendix B: Physical Constants, Pre
Page 1810:
MASS ATTENUATIONCOEFFICIENTS AND SP
Page 1814:
Appendix C: Mass Attenuation Coeffi
Page 1818:
Page 1822:
Page 1826:
C.6 MAMMOGRAPHY SPECTRA: Rh/RhTABLE
Page 1830:
Appendix Co' Mass Attenuation Coeff
Page 1834:
RADIOPHARMACEUTICALCHARACTERISTICS
Page 1838:
1251Albumin (ONI) IV N/A -20 mL blo
Page 1842:
153Sm Lexidronam, also IV over a 1-
Page 1846:
-90% of dose excreted in 3 hr. Prep
Page 1850:
99mTc-basedmyocardial perfusion age
Page 1854:
99mTcMacroaggregated 0.16 ts 0.0161
Page 1858:
TABLE D-4. ABSORBED DOSE ESTIMATES
Page 1864:
914 Section V: AppendicesMedical Ph
Page 1868:
ASCII. See American Standard Code f
Page 1872:
DDAC. See Digital-to-analog convert
Page 1876:
Electronic switchltimer, exposure t
Page 1880:
Image magnification, spatial resolu
Page 1884:
Magnetic resonance imaging (contd.)
Page 1888:
Phased array, ultrasound, 490Phosph
Page 1892:
Radiation detection (contd)gas-fill
Page 1896:
Shoe marks, processor artifacts, 18
Page 1900:
Two dimensional multi planar acquis
Page 1906:
"Nope '" no sign of YOur kitten, Ma
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