Air Quality Guidelines Global Update 2005 - World Health ...

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SOURCES OF AIR POLLUTION Table 1. Contribution of road transport (RT) and other modes of transport (OT) to selected pollutant emissions by percentage of total emissions for the United Kingdom in 2000, the EU (EU15) in 1999, the EU accession countries (AC9) in 1999, the United States in 1999, various European countries in 1999 and Delhi, India in 1995 Area United Kingdom EU15 AC9 United States Austria Belgium Denmark Germany Finland France Italy Luxembourg Netherlands Spain Sweden Delhi, India Carbon monoxide Nitrogen oxides NM VOC Sulfur dioxide PM10 PM2.5 PM1 RT OT RT OT RT OT RT OT RT OT RT OT RT OT 5 6.1b 69 11 42 11 24 4 1 3 18 57 7 45 18 31 6 3 4 28 37 12 37 5 2 1 51 26 34 22 29 18 2 5 24.2 40.8 9.9 7.1 53.3 48.8 30.3 3.3 56.0 36.8 34.2 2.6 1.9 0.9 53.0 50.9 11.9 20.4 3.1 48.6 45.9 31.7 5 41.5 51.4 25.5 4.9 68.1 50.3 43.6 1.0 64.0 43.8 9–19 37.5 25.0 60.5 41.8 6.5 36.0 5–12 4.9 1–3 53.8 39.9 15 15.2 1.5 57.5 44.9 21.8 1.6 1.9 2.6 85.5 82.4 84.1 39.0 a 1.4b 12.8 12.2 13.0 16.1 11.7 11.3 14.7 8.8 14.7 16.1 13.9 15.6c 6 11a 2.2b 24 3.4b 30 7 a Emissions of particulates assigned as primary and secondary fine particulates, of which 12% are considered primary PM10. b Direct emissions only (i.e. does not include fugitive dust). c Based on inventory for total suspended particulates. Sources: Thomas & Harrison (8); Goodwin et al. (9); Goodwin & Mareckova (10); US Environmental Protection Agency (11); European Environment Agency (12); Gurjar et al. (13). National inventories are also valuable in the following ways. • They illustrate the relative importance of different source categories. For example, Fig. 2 shows national emission inventories for the United Kingdom for nitrogen oxides, sulfur dioxide, ammonia and non-methane VOC for 2001, showing widely different source profiles. Such information is useful in comparing the emissions between different countries. Table 1 shows, for a range of countries, the contributions of road transport and other modes of transport to emissions of selected pollutants by percentage of total emissions. • They illustrate temporal trends in pollutant emissions. This is illustrated in Fig. 3, which shows the percentage change in PM10 emissions by country for Europe between 1990 and 2001, illustrating widely differing behaviour between different economies. Fig. 4 shows a time series by source category of sulfur dioxide emissions in Hong Kong, China. This shows successive rapid rises and declines in emissions, followed by a gradual increase between 1999 and 2004. It also shows that the dominant contribution due to electricity generation drives the temporal trends. 21
22 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES Fig. 3. Percentage changes in PM10 emissions in selected European countries between 1990 and 2001 United Kingdom Sweden Netherlands Germany Luxembourg France Italy Ireland Denmark Spain Austria Greece Portugal Belgium Finland Switzerland Liechtenstein Norway Hungary Poland Czech Republic Source: <strong>Air</strong> <strong>Quality</strong> Expert Group (7). Fig. 4. Temporal trends in sulfur dioxide emissions by source category in Hong Kong, China, 1990–2004 Tonnes 200 000 180 000 160 000 140 000 120 000 100 000 80 000 60 000 40 000 20 000 −42% −39% −36% −23% −17% −13% −9% −1% −1% −1% −26% −18% −8% –60 –40 –20 0 20 40 60 80 0 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 Year 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 Source: Hong Kong Environmental Protection Department (14). 3% 5% 5% 2% 3% 9% 19% European Union European Free Trade Area Accession countries Other fuel combustion Civil aviation Shipping Road transport Public power generation 71%
Page 1 and 2: Air Quality Guidelines Particulate
Page 3 and 4: Abstract Th e WHO air quality guide
Page 5 and 6: Acknowledgements Th is work was sup
Page 7 and 8: VI Th e infl uence of location on t
Page 9 and 10: VIII AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES 11. Ozo
Page 12 and 13: Introduction Th e fi rst edition of
Page 14 and 15: INTRODUCTION • Chapters 1 and 2 a
Page 16 and 17: INTRODUCTION pollutants such as nit
Page 18: Part 1 Application of air quality g
Page 21 and 22: 10 Introduction AIR QUALITY GUIDELI
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Page 31: 20 Box 1. Main categories of air po
Page 35 and 36: 24 Source profile Coarse particles
Page 37 and 38: 26 Source: Air Quality Expert Group
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HUMAN EXPOSURE TO AIR POLLUTION Ass
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HUMAN EXPOSURE TO AIR POLLUTION Spa
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HUMAN EXPOSURE TO AIR POLLUTION bot
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HUMAN EXPOSURE TO AIR POLLUTION per
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HUMAN EXPOSURE TO AIR POLLUTION Ano
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HUMAN EXPOSURE TO AIR POLLUTION Ref
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HUMAN EXPOSURE TO AIR POLLUTION 27.
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HUMAN EXPOSURE TO AIR POLLUTION 55.
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88 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES such as a
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90 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES proportio
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92 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES exposure
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94 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES Time seri
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96 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES This desi
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98 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES analyses
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100 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES time ser
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102 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES Neverthe
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104 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES 27. Schw
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106 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES 58. Pete
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108 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES 89. Kunz
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5. Determinants of susceptibility M
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DETERMINANTS OF SUSCEPTIBILITY Anim
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DETERMINANTS OF SUSCEPTIBILITY necr
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DETERMINANTS OF SUSCEPTIBILITY By 2
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DETERMINANTS OF SUSCEPTIBILITY envi
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DETERMINANTS OF SUSCEPTIBILITY to t
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DETERMINANTS OF SUSCEPTIBILITY grow
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DETERMINANTS OF SUSCEPTIBILITY dise
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DETERMINANTS OF SUSCEPTIBILITY 3. U
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DETERMINANTS OF SUSCEPTIBILITY 34.
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136 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES by highe
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138 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES developi
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140 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES disease
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142 Source: Cohen et al. (22). PM10
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144 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES communit
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146 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES concentr
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148 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES 2. Draft
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150 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES 29. Kesk
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152 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES 56. Zhu
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154 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES such as
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156 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES in 12 Eu
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158 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES these da
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160 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES Extrapol
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162 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES factors
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164 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES interval
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166 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES Uncertai
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168 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES in the U
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170 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES 22. Holl
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8. Application of guidelines in pol
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APPLICATION OF GUIDELINES IN POLICY
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9. Indoor air quality 1 Kalpana Bal
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INDOOR AIR QUALITY such circumstanc
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INDOOR AIR QUALITY cleaner fuels, h
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INDOOR AIR QUALITY Table 2. Toxic p
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INDOOR AIR QUALITY 200, and LPG (li
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INDOOR AIR QUALITY Evidence has als
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INDOOR AIR QUALITY Table 6. Burden
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INDOOR AIR QUALITY are highly depen
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INDOOR AIR QUALITY Most evidence av
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How assessed INDOOR AIR QUALITY Nat
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INDOOR AIR QUALITY 17. Bhargava A e
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INDOOR AIR QUALITY 46. Strachan DP,
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INDOOR AIR QUALITY 71. Bruce NG et
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10. Particulate matter Jonathan M.
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PARTICULATE MATTER aerodynamic diam
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PARTICULATE MATTER Ambient concentr
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PARTICULATE MATTER meteorology, the
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PARTICULATE MATTER Methods for samp
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PARTICULATE MATTER Table 1. Summary
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PARTICULATE MATTER ambient air. The
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PARTICULATE MATTER Mechanisms of to
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PARTICULATE MATTER The toxicity of
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PARTICULATE MATTER Mortality and ho
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PARTICULATE MATTER attributed solel
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PARTICULATE MATTER composed of low-
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PARTICULATE MATTER modulating biolo
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PARTICULATE MATTER to concentrated
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PARTICULATE MATTER report, conclude
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PARTICULATE MATTER Looking across t
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PARTICULATE MATTER measurements are
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PARTICULATE MATTER Human exposure s
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PARTICULATE MATTER Findings Referen
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3 4 12 15 PARTICULATE MATTER 10 21
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PARTICULATE MATTER Table 4. Cohort
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PARTICULATE MATTER Reference Popula
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PARTICULATE MATTER mechanisms for t
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Cardiovascular 4 Cardiovascular 7 P
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PARTICULATE MATTER human health eff
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PARTICULATE MATTER medical clinic f
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PARTICULATE MATTER range of concent
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PARTICULATE MATTER analysis is base
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PARTICULATE MATTER PM10 is suggeste
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PARTICULATE MATTER distribution of
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PARTICULATE MATTER 11. Daniels M et
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PARTICULATE MATTER 39. Hoek G, Brun
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PARTICULATE MATTER 69. Kinney PL et
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PARTICULATE MATTER 95. Brunekreef B
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PARTICULATE MATTER 126. Seagrave J
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PARTICULATE MATTER 154. Wellenius G
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PARTICULATE MATTER 184. Oberdorster
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PARTICULATE MATTER 213. Costa DL, D
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PARTICULATE MATTER 240. Saldiva PH
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PARTICULATE MATTER 271. Dominici F
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PARTICULATE MATTER 294. Pope CA et
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PARTICULATE MATTER 321. Delfino RJ
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PARTICULATE MATTER 350. Sutherland
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308 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES Atmosphe
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310 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES Fig. 1.
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312 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES males (1
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314 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES • Ther
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316 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES the high
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318 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES effect o
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320 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES (range 2
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322 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES personal
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324 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES • Dete
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326 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES numbers
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328 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES 26. Rich
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330 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES 56. McCo
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332 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES the comb
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334 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES nitrogen
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338 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES 20 days)
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340 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES Table 1.
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342 Concentration (μg/m 3 ) 500 56
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344 Concentration (μg/m 3 ) 940 94
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346 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES exposed
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348 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES Host def
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352 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES the few
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354 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES 2005 (13
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356 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES and carb
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358 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES 10 μg/m
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360 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES for othe
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368 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES 38 ppb.
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370 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES A popula
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372 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES In summa
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374 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES nitrogen
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376 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES to nitro
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378 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES 5. Advis
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380 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES 28. Ichi
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382 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES 57. Salo
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384 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES 80. Koen
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386 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES 107. Fra
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388 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES 132. Lin
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390 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES 160. Atk
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392 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES 187. Fil
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396 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES Sources
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398 Health effects AIR QUALITY GUID
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400 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES of airwa
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402 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES discussi
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404 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES the Cana
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406 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES are a ca
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408 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES In the A
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410 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES pre-sele
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412 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES duration
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414 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES exposure
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416 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES 4. Lawth
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418 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES 30. Gryp
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420 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES 55. Sega
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Annex 1 Pathogenesis of ozone-depen
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ANNEX 1 Thus, the following section
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ANNEX 1 system, an increase in the
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ANNEX 1 Increase in levels of nitri
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ANNEX 1 Induction of systemic infla
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ANNEX 1 Mechanisms of ozone toleran
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ANNEX 1 pulmonary alveolar macropha
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ANNEX 1 analysis in mice: tumour ne
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ANNEX 1 Effect Reference Increased
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ANNEX 1 Effect Reference Increase i
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ANNEX 1 Effect Reference Increased
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ANNEX 1 Effect Reference Exposures
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ANNEX 1 Observed effect Reference P
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ANNEX 1 Observed effect Reference O
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ANNEX 1 Observed effect Reference I
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ANNEX 1 Observed effect Reference O
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ANNEX 1 Observed effect Reference N
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ANNEX 1 Observed effect Reference N
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ANNEX 1 Observed effect Reference A
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ANNEX 1 34. Postlethwait EM et al.
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ANNEX 1 61. Krishna MT et al. Short
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ANNEX 1 87. Olin AC et al. Nitric o
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ANNEX 1 115. Schelegle ES et al. WC
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ANNEX 1 145. Eustis SL et al. Chron
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ANNEX 1 174. Shore SA et al. Ventil
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ANNEX 1 202. Blomberg A et al. Clar
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ANNEX 1 230. Schwartz J. Air pollut
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ANNEX 1 258. Mann JK et al. Air pol
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ANNEX 1 288. Conceicao GM et al. Ai
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Annex 2 List of Working Group membe
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ANNEX 2 Erich Wichmann GSF-Institut
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The WHO air quality guidelines offe
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