Air Quality Guidelines Global Update 2005 - World Health ...

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GLOBAL AMBIENT AIR POLLUTION CONCENTRATIONS AND TRENDS Concentrations of PM10 have been summarized for 17 selected cities in Latin America and the Caribbean region for 2000–2004 (Maisonet DM, personal communication, <strong>2005</strong>). The results, indicate that annual average concentrations had a range of 30–118 μg/m 3 . In most cities, PM levels in 2004 were lower than those measured in 2000. Reports on air quality in Santiago de Chile are available for several years. The city is located in the middle of a valley and is surrounded by mountains. The winter months, April to September, are clearly more polluted than the summer months (20). Typical average PM10 concentrations reached 90 μg/m 3 in 2003/2004. A wintertime study of fine particles in São Paulo, Brazil (7) showed average PM10 concentrations at 33 μg/m 3 . The highest observed daily PM10 concentration was 89 μg/m 3 . A report by the US Environmental Protection Agency on 340 cities nationwide (8) showed annual mean PM10 concentrations of 14–63 μg/m 3 , with an overall national average of 26 μg/m 3 . Toronto and Montreal in Canada reported annual average PM10 concentrations of 20–28 μg/m 3 . Large differences in reported PM10 concentrations are found in Africa. Welldeveloped cities such as Cape Town and Johannesburg in South Africa report Europe North America Prague Turin Bucharest Barcelona Milan Rome Cracow Berlin Erfurt Oslo Palermo Seville Bologna Helsinki Budapest Florence Hamburg Vienna Warsaw Munich Amsterdam Cologne Geneva Basel Zurich Copenhagen London Athens Leeds Brussels Stockholm San Diego St Louis Los Angeles Knoxville Houston Pittsburg Dallas Memphis Oklahoma City Washington, DC New York Seattle 39
40 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES rather low annual average PM10 concentrations of around 30–40 μg/m 3 . In the greater Cairo area, however, the typical annual average concentrations in urban and residential areas ranged from 60 μg/m 3 to 200 μg/m 3 . In industrial areas concentrations measured were between 200 μg/m 3 and 500 μg/m 3 (9). The natural background concentration of PM10 in Egypt is high owing to wind-blown dust from the desert areas. Based on local measurements, “background” PM10 concentration has been estimated at about 70 μg/m 3 . Towns in arid areas with surrounding deserts frequently receive a considerable amount of dust from wind-blown fine sand. In Cairo it was found that large fractions of the PM10 might be attributed to fine sand particles (21). During air pollution episodes, the burning of agricultural and other waste also contributed. Pollution in the Kathmandu valley was analysed based on data from March 2003 to February 2004. The PM10 concentration peaked at around 300 μg/m 3 in December 2003 while in July and August it was around 120 μg/m 3 , showing that the valley experiences a winter dry period with high concentrations of particulates. In Hanoi, the mean PM10 mass concentration at an urban site was measured at 38 μg/m 3 , twice the level measured at a rural site. In Ho Chi Minh City, the annual average PM10 concentrations measured at seven sites ranged from 50 μg/m 3 to 130 μg/m 3 (10). The air quality in cities in China is generally improving, even though two out of three cities in 2002 recorded PM10 levels above 60 μg/m 3 (11). The cities having relatively severe particulate pollution were mainly in northern China, in the central plains and in the eastern parts of Sichuan and Chongqing. From Australia it has been reported that atmospheric particles resulting from seasonal wood smoke are of concern in some cities. Current efforts to educate the community on appropriate use of domestic wood heaters are likely to take a long time to show substantial benefit. The largest cities such as Sydney and Melbourne, however, reported annual average PM10 concentrations as low as 20–22 μg/m 3 (22). PM2.5, an indicator for fine particles PM2.5 is an important indicator of risk to health from particulate pollution, and might also be a better indicator than PM10 for anthropogenic suspended particles in many areas. The ratio of PM2.5 to PM10 has been reported from many cities worldwide. A study in 239 American cities (23) revealed PM2.5 : PM10 ratios of between 0.44 and 0.71, while studies in Cairo (10) indicated a ratio of around 0.5. In Santiago de Chile, average daytime values were between 0.4 and 0.6, with the highest ratios during the winter months (24). PM2.5 concentrations depend on the type of source, distance from the source and wind speed. Natural PM sources can contribute significantly to PM2.5
Page 1 and 2: Air Quality Guidelines Particulate
Page 3 and 4: Abstract Th e WHO air quality guide
Page 5 and 6: Acknowledgements Th is work was sup
Page 7 and 8: VI Th e infl uence of location on t
Page 9 and 10: VIII AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES 11. Ozo
Page 12 and 13: Introduction Th e fi rst edition of
Page 14 and 15: INTRODUCTION • Chapters 1 and 2 a
Page 16 and 17: INTRODUCTION pollutants such as nit
Page 18: Part 1 Application of air quality g
Page 21 and 22: 10 Introduction AIR QUALITY GUIDELI
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Page 25 and 26: 14 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES pipe of a
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Page 31 and 32: 20 Box 1. Main categories of air po
Page 33 and 34: 22 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES Fig. 3. P
Page 35 and 36: 24 Source profile Coarse particles
Page 37 and 38: 26 Source: Air Quality Expert Group
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90 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES proportio
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92 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES exposure
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94 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES Time seri
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96 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES This desi
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98 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES analyses
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100 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES time ser
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102 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES Neverthe
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104 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES 27. Schw
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106 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES 58. Pete
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108 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES 89. Kunz
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5. Determinants of susceptibility M
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DETERMINANTS OF SUSCEPTIBILITY Anim
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DETERMINANTS OF SUSCEPTIBILITY necr
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DETERMINANTS OF SUSCEPTIBILITY By 2
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DETERMINANTS OF SUSCEPTIBILITY envi
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DETERMINANTS OF SUSCEPTIBILITY to t
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DETERMINANTS OF SUSCEPTIBILITY grow
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DETERMINANTS OF SUSCEPTIBILITY dise
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DETERMINANTS OF SUSCEPTIBILITY 3. U
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DETERMINANTS OF SUSCEPTIBILITY 34.
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136 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES by highe
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138 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES developi
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140 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES disease
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142 Source: Cohen et al. (22). PM10
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144 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES communit
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146 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES concentr
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148 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES 2. Draft
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150 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES 29. Kesk
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152 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES 56. Zhu
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154 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES such as
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156 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES in 12 Eu
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158 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES these da
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160 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES Extrapol
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162 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES factors
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164 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES interval
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166 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES Uncertai
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168 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES in the U
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170 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES 22. Holl
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8. Application of guidelines in pol
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APPLICATION OF GUIDELINES IN POLICY
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9. Indoor air quality 1 Kalpana Bal
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INDOOR AIR QUALITY such circumstanc
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INDOOR AIR QUALITY cleaner fuels, h
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INDOOR AIR QUALITY Table 2. Toxic p
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INDOOR AIR QUALITY 200, and LPG (li
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INDOOR AIR QUALITY Evidence has als
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INDOOR AIR QUALITY Table 6. Burden
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INDOOR AIR QUALITY are highly depen
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INDOOR AIR QUALITY Most evidence av
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How assessed INDOOR AIR QUALITY Nat
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INDOOR AIR QUALITY 17. Bhargava A e
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INDOOR AIR QUALITY 46. Strachan DP,
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INDOOR AIR QUALITY 71. Bruce NG et
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10. Particulate matter Jonathan M.
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PARTICULATE MATTER aerodynamic diam
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PARTICULATE MATTER Ambient concentr
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PARTICULATE MATTER meteorology, the
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PARTICULATE MATTER Methods for samp
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PARTICULATE MATTER Table 1. Summary
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PARTICULATE MATTER ambient air. The
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PARTICULATE MATTER Mechanisms of to
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PARTICULATE MATTER The toxicity of
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PARTICULATE MATTER Mortality and ho
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PARTICULATE MATTER attributed solel
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PARTICULATE MATTER composed of low-
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PARTICULATE MATTER modulating biolo
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PARTICULATE MATTER to concentrated
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PARTICULATE MATTER report, conclude
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PARTICULATE MATTER Looking across t
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PARTICULATE MATTER measurements are
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PARTICULATE MATTER Human exposure s
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PARTICULATE MATTER Findings Referen
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3 4 12 15 PARTICULATE MATTER 10 21
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PARTICULATE MATTER Table 4. Cohort
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PARTICULATE MATTER Reference Popula
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PARTICULATE MATTER mechanisms for t
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Cardiovascular 4 Cardiovascular 7 P
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PARTICULATE MATTER human health eff
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PARTICULATE MATTER medical clinic f
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PARTICULATE MATTER range of concent
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PARTICULATE MATTER analysis is base
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PARTICULATE MATTER PM10 is suggeste
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PARTICULATE MATTER distribution of
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PARTICULATE MATTER 11. Daniels M et
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PARTICULATE MATTER 39. Hoek G, Brun
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PARTICULATE MATTER 69. Kinney PL et
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PARTICULATE MATTER 95. Brunekreef B
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PARTICULATE MATTER 126. Seagrave J
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PARTICULATE MATTER 154. Wellenius G
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PARTICULATE MATTER 184. Oberdorster
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PARTICULATE MATTER 213. Costa DL, D
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PARTICULATE MATTER 240. Saldiva PH
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PARTICULATE MATTER 271. Dominici F
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PARTICULATE MATTER 294. Pope CA et
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PARTICULATE MATTER 321. Delfino RJ
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PARTICULATE MATTER 350. Sutherland
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308 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES Atmosphe
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310 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES Fig. 1.
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312 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES males (1
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314 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES • Ther
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316 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES the high
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318 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES effect o
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320 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES (range 2
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322 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES personal
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324 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES • Dete
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326 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES numbers
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328 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES 26. Rich
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330 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES 56. McCo
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332 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES the comb
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334 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES nitrogen
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336 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES been exa
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338 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES 20 days)
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340 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES Table 1.
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342 Concentration (μg/m 3 ) 500 56
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344 Concentration (μg/m 3 ) 940 94
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346 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES exposed
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348 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES Host def
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352 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES the few
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354 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES 2005 (13
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356 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES and carb
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358 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES 10 μg/m
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360 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES for othe
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368 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES 38 ppb.
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370 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES A popula
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372 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES In summa
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374 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES nitrogen
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376 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES to nitro
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378 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES 5. Advis
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380 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES 28. Ichi
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382 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES 57. Salo
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384 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES 80. Koen
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386 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES 107. Fra
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388 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES 132. Lin
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390 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES 160. Atk
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392 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES 187. Fil
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394 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES 215. Sam
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396 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES Sources
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398 Health effects AIR QUALITY GUID
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400 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES of airwa
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402 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES discussi
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404 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES the Cana
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406 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES are a ca
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408 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES In the A
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410 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES pre-sele
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412 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES duration
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414 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES exposure
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416 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES 4. Lawth
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418 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES 30. Gryp
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420 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES 55. Sega
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Annex 1 Pathogenesis of ozone-depen
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ANNEX 1 Thus, the following section
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ANNEX 1 system, an increase in the
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ANNEX 1 Increase in levels of nitri
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ANNEX 1 Induction of systemic infla
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ANNEX 1 Mechanisms of ozone toleran
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ANNEX 1 pulmonary alveolar macropha
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ANNEX 1 analysis in mice: tumour ne
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ANNEX 1 Effect Reference Increased
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ANNEX 1 Effect Reference Increase i
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ANNEX 1 Effect Reference Increased
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ANNEX 1 Effect Reference Exposures
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ANNEX 1 Observed effect Reference P
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ANNEX 1 Observed effect Reference O
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ANNEX 1 Observed effect Reference I
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ANNEX 1 Observed effect Reference O
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ANNEX 1 Observed effect Reference N
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ANNEX 1 Observed effect Reference N
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ANNEX 1 Observed effect Reference A
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ANNEX 1 34. Postlethwait EM et al.
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ANNEX 1 61. Krishna MT et al. Short
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ANNEX 1 87. Olin AC et al. Nitric o
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ANNEX 1 115. Schelegle ES et al. WC
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ANNEX 1 145. Eustis SL et al. Chron
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ANNEX 1 174. Shore SA et al. Ventil
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ANNEX 1 202. Blomberg A et al. Clar
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ANNEX 1 230. Schwartz J. Air pollut
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ANNEX 1 258. Mann JK et al. Air pol
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ANNEX 1 288. Conceicao GM et al. Ai
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Annex 2 List of Working Group membe
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ANNEX 2 Erich Wichmann GSF-Institut
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The WHO air quality guidelines offe
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