WiMax Operator's Manual

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CHAPTER 3 ■ STRATEGIC PLANNING OF SPECTRUM AND SERVICES 37 Generally, the shorter the wavelength, the more rapid the attenuation of the signal when it is propagated through the air, and in the region above 10GHz attenuation rises sharply from an initial level of 0.2 decibels (dB) per kilometer at 10GHz. To a certain degree, the ease of focusing millimeter microwave signals into narrow beams has the opposite effect because of the intense concentration of the RF energy within the beam, but still most network operators utilizing these frequencies do not attempt to transmit more than a mile. Transmissions also become increasingly subject to atmospheric conditions, particularly rain. In fact, RF engineers have a term, rain fade, to describe the loss of transmission distance during periods of heavy precipitation. Rain fade can be addressed by increasing transmitting power, but in most places transmitting power is subject to regulation, and, in any case, RF amplifier power tends to go down with increasing frequency because of the inability of the power transistors used in the output stages of the transmitters to pass high-frequency waveforms that are also high in voltage. Indeed, solid-state amplifiers capable of developing even moderate power in the higher millimeter wave bands have been available only since the 1990s. Thus, signal attenuation in open air over distance becomes a substantial problem. Attenuation of the signal in the regions above 10GHz is attributable to two causes: water vapor absorption and oxygen molecule absorption. Neither manifests a linear increase with frequency, but instead both exhibit wild fluctuations, with peaks of absorption followed by valleys and then further peaks, with an overall upward trend becoming evident. Incidentally, the patterns for oxygen and water vapor absorption are quite different, and their peaks and valleys do not coincide. Above 100GHz, oxygen molecule absorption quickly plunges to an insignificant level while the water vapor absorption trend moves mercilessly upward while still manifesting a series of high peaks and deep troughs as you go up in frequency. From 10GHz to 30GHz, absorption of either sort is not a very serious problem, and only one absorption peak of any significance is present, that occurring at 23GHz. Consequently, the entire spectrum category is useful. Above 30GHz, water vapor absorption rises very steeply, exceeding 10dB per kilometer at 60GHz. Notwithstanding, spectrum has been allocated for broadband terrestrial use at 31GHz, 38GHz, and 39GHz, though water vapor attenuation is already quite severe above 38GHz. Figure 3-1 shows how frequency relates to atmospheric attenuation characteristics. Another problem in the spectrum above 10GHz is the obstructing effect of not just walls but of even light foliage. Transmissions in these bands need absolutely clear line of sight, which obviously makes placement of base stations much more difficult. A final problem, and it is a significant one, has been the equipment itself. The commercial microwave industry has been making reliable if expensive equipment for use in the bands below 25GHz for 30 years, but higher-frequency bands have been mainly used for radar until quite recently. Only in the late 1980s did bands beyond 25GHz begin to be exploited for commercial communications, the first use being in satellite systems where transmissions were highly asymmetrical and the high cost of millimeter wave equipment satellite was not of much significance in view of the already enormous cost of launch vehicles and the satellites themselves. Early attempts to build terrestrial equipment for these bands were not very successful, and only within the last year or so have millimeter wave data links reached a high degree of reliability. Figure 3-2 shows an example of a widely used base station radio for millimeter wave networks. Such equipment is typically more expensive than hardware intended for operation below 10GHz.
38 CHAPTER 3 ■ STRATEGIC PLANNING OF SPECTRUM AND SERVICES Figure 3-1. Frequency vs. atmospheric attenuation characteristics Figure 3-2. FibeAir 1500 subscriber terminal, courtesy of Ceragon Networks The cost of millimeter microwave equipment remains high today, though it has fallen a bit, and thus the equipment lends itself only to use with high-value customers such as mobile operators seeking high-speed backhaul and enterprises wanting medium-speed or high-speed packet services.
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WiMax Operator’s Manual Building
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This book is dedicated to my wife.
Page 8 and 9: Contents About the Author . . . . .
Page 10 and 11: ■CONTENTS ix Performing Site Surv
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Page 16: About the Technical Reviewer ■ROB
Page 20 and 21: Introduction Broadband wireless has
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CHAPTER 6 ■ ■ ■ Beyond Access
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Figure 6-4. Wireless public network
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Specialized Content Distribution Pl
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Beyond the Central Office CHAPTER 6
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CHAPTER 7 ■ ■ ■ Service Deplo
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CHAPTER 7 ■ SERVICE DEPLOYMENTS O
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178 CHAPTER 8 ■ NETWORK MANAGEMEN
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CHAPTER 9 ■ ■ ■ Network Secur
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CHAPTER 9 ■ NETWORK SECURITY 189
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Index ■Numbers 2.4GHz to 928MHz b
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asic access and best-effort deliver
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■D dark fiber, features of, 75-76
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harmonics, impact on AC power, 188
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challenges to, 85-86 and NLOS, 121
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PONs (passive optical networks), fe
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signal diversity, providing with ad
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■V VDSL and entertainment service
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