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6 THE UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS PALEONTOLOGICAL CONTRIBUTIONS specimens in the British Museum of Natural History and others on loan, has served as basic reference material for all subsequent text books and treatises concerned with blastoids. Most pre-Permian genera and species are illustrated and described in ETHERIDGE & CARPENTER 'S paper, which contains first record of many newly observed morphological features, such as the double oral-esophageal ring, hydrospire plates, and various abnormalities. In 1908, F. A. BATHER reported the occurrence of Permian blastoids on Timor in the Dutch East Indies, and subsequently similar fossils have been found in the Permian of Russia, Sicily, and New South Wales. In a series of articles written from the early 1920's to 1940, J. WANNER described and illustrated 48 species of blastoids belonging to 16 genera from Permian deposits of Timor, almost all new to science. Since 1940, I. G. REIMANN has published several articles on Devonian blastoids and in the 1930's L. M. CLINE published on some Devonian and Mississippian blastoids of North America. Since then, little has been added to our knowledge except details of stratigraphic occurrence, as in the papers by K. JOYSEY (1953-1959). In 1943, R. S. BASSLER & M. W. MOODEY prepared a bibliographic index to species, in which they recognized approximately 50 genera and 350 species. There is need for a comprehensive bibliography and objective index to the Blastoidea, with a stratigraphie and geographic cross index. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS For aid in obtaining specimens for study I wish to thank Dr. G. ARTHUR COOPER and Dr. PORTER KIER, Of the U. S. National Museum, Washington; Dr. HORACE G. RICHARDS, of the Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia; Dr. HARRY B. WHITTINGTON, Harvard Museum of Comparative Zoology, Cambridge, Mass.; Dr. CLINTON F. KILFOYLE, of the University of the State of New York, Albany; Dr. FRED HALL and Miss CAROL HEUBUSCH, of the Buffalo Society of Natural Sciences, Buffalo, N. Y.; Dr. DIGBY MCLAREN, of the Geological Survey of Canada, Ottawa, Ontario; Dr. DONALD F. SQUIRES, of the American Museum of Natural History, New York City; Mr. IRVING G. REIMANN, Of the University of Michigan Museum, Ann Arbor; Dr. J. MARVIN WELLER and Mr. MATTHEW H. NITECKI, Of the University of Chicago; Dr. HAROLD W. SCOTT, of the University of Illinois, Urbana; Mrs. Lois KENT, of the Illinois Geological Survey, Urbana; Dr. CARLTON CONDIT, of the Illinois State Museum, Springfield; Mr. JOHN L. CARTER, of the University of Cincinnati; Dr. JAMES CONKIN, of the University of Louisville, Louisville, Ky.; Dr. RALPH H. KING and Mrs. LAVON McCoRmicK, of the University of Kansas, Lawrence; Dr. A. G. UNKLESBAY, of the University of Missouri, Columbia; Dr. ARTHUR C. MCFARLAN, Of the University of Kentucky, Lexington; Dr. HAROLD H. BEAVER, of Humble Oil & Refining Co., Houston, Texas; Dr. LEWIS M. CLINE, of the University of Wisconsin, Madison; Dr. T. SOERADI, of the Djawatan Geologi- Bandung Museum, Bandung, Indonesia; Dr. M. MINATO, of Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan; Dr. GERHARD REGNELL, of Lunds Universitet, Lund, Sweden; Dr. H. O. FLETCHER, of the Australian Museum, Sydney, N.S.W.; Prof. Dr. W. CROSS, of the Humboldt-Universi6t zu Berlin, Berlin, Germany; Prof. Dr. H. K. ERBEN, of the Rhein, Friedrich Wilhelms-Universitat, Bonn, Germany; Dr. F. G. H. UBAGHS, JR., of the Technische Hogeschool, Delft, The Netherlands; Dr. LESLIE BAIRSTOW and Trustees of the British Museum of Natural History, London, England; and the assistants to these persons. Special thanks are due Dr. RAYMOND C. MOORE, of the University of Kansas, for promoting this project and for support of it by allocation of funds from the National Science Foundation, and to Mrs. PATRICIA FAY, my wife, for assistance with illustrations. Dr. CARL C. BRANSON, Director of the Oklahoma Geological Survey, kindly allowed me a leave of absence for this study. I thank Mr. ROY DAVIS and his assistant, Miss STORMI KRALL, of the Oklahoma Geological Survey, for assistance with illustrations. Abbreviations Used in Text-figures and Plates "A" —anterior ambulacrum. Amb —ambulacrum. An —anispiracle or anal opening. B —basal plate. "B" —right anterior ambulacrum. Bf —brachiolar facet. Bp —brachiolar pit. C —radial canal. "C" —right posterior ambulacrum. Col —columnal. CR —cryptodeltoid plate. D —deltoid plate. "D" —left posterior ambulacrum. Db —deltoid body. Dc —deltoid crest. Dl —deltoid lip. Ds —deltoid septum. —left anterior ambulacrum. ED —epideltoid plate. Fg —main food groove, represented by an arrow pointing toward mouth. H —hydrospire canal. HD —hypodeltoid, with dashed lines where inferred and slanted lines for facet. HP —hydrospire plate. Hs —hydrospire slit.
BLASTOID STUDIES 7 ISp —inner side plate. —lancet plate. Lu —lumen. 0 —oral opening (stippled) or oral plate. OSp —outer side plate. — pore. Pf —pore furrow. —radial plate. Rp —radial limb. RI —radial lip. S —spiracle. SB —subbasal. SFg —side food groove. Sp —side plate(s). Ss —spiracular slit. Su —superdeltoid plate. Sub —subdeltoid plate. Z —azygous basal, in A-B position when in lower right position. —arrow marks position of main food groove, pointing toward mouth (in figures showing side plates). MORPHOLOGY OF BLASTOIDS INTRODUCTION Large detailed drawings which show adequately the detailed morphology of the blastoids do not exist, and therefore many small features of skeletal structures have never been clearly illustrated. Consequently I decided to draw enlarged portions of anal areas, oral areas, ambulacra, basal plates, stems, hydrospires, and pores, from the available specimens. A genotype, holotype, syntype, paratype, neotype, or metatype was used for this study wherever possible but otherwise it was necessary to use plesiotypes or hypotypes or unfigured specimens. Portions of this work were initiated in 1954 at the University of Kansas and carried on subsequently at the University of Oklahoma. TECHNIQUES Much of the work done at the University of Kansas is not incorporated in this study and has been or is being published separately. However, certain techniques were used in these early studies and are here mentioned. The serial peel-section technique, along with the camera lucida, was used for most detailed work. In this procedure parallel sections were ground at selected regularly spaced small intervals using a Croft Parallel Grinding Instrument, which is a well-constructed micrometer mounted on a flat metal table, capable of being rotated on ball bearings. The micrometer mount permits determination of the exact amount of section to be ground and the ball bearings insure that each section is parallel with preceding and succeeding ones. After attaining the desired level, the section was polished and etched with 5-percent hydrochloric acid and allowed to dry. Camera lucida drawings were made of the section itself, and for additional record, peel sections were prepared by immersing the slightly etched surface in acetone and pressing the fossil against an acetate sheet. Some acetate should be dissolved in the acetone for best results. The peel section, which shows microscopic details of the surface in manner corresponding closely to a thin section, then was placed in a photographic enlarger so that by transmitted light features of the section could be recorded on photographic paper. From these photos, with camera lucida drawings as guide, all information was transferred onto paper by making direct overlays in ink. From the inked drawings 3-dimensional models in glass were built up, and from the models, 3-dimensional drawings were prepared. Upon examination of each specimen, it gradually became obvious that most genera, in a broad sense, exhibit the same type of basic internal morphology. Therefore, with later studies, diagrams were drawn directly from the sections or specimens. A universal stage was used to determine the optical character of the calyx plates and it was found that each plate has its own individual orientation. For later studies at the University of Oklahoma, the camera lucida was used in recording features of thin sections, polished sections, and details of externally visible morphologic parts. The following data are presented to show the results of morphologic studies. GROSS MORPHOLOGY It is assumed that the reader has some basic knowledge of the Blastoidea. Nevertheless, the following definitions may be useful for them, though unnecessary for specialists. A blastoid may be defined as a stemmed echinoderm with a body (termed calyx) that bears internal folded structures called hydrospires, which are located in the upper half (in direction away from the stem attachment) of the calyx. As a rule, the calyx is composed of 18 to 21 plates arranged in 4 definite cycles. Normally three plates occur next to the stem at the base of the calyx; these are termed basais, the smallest
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