Journal of Research in Innovative Teaching - National University

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The Motivational and Attitudinal Characteristics of Highly-Proficient L2 Speakers: Implications for foreign language teaching and learning Lisa M. Basista and Robyn A. Hill Abstract This study examines the various motivational factors and, to a lesser extent, attitudinal factors, that four near-native L2 speakers identified as leading to their high levels of fluency. Through reflective Second Language Learner Autobiographies, participants explore the role key constructs such as attitudes, motivation and sociocultural beliefs played in their L2 acquisition. A follow-up Likert-scale questionnaire ranks the common themes that were identified as leading to high proficiency. This study examines each of the commonly identified factors and then provides an analysis of the implications for second-language pedagogy. Key words Foreign language teaching, second language pedagogy, motivation, proficiency, language learner Introduction In order to properly frame this study, it is necessary to examine the state of foreign language education in the United States and around the world. A cursory Internet search of terms such as “foreign language shortage” generates a list of articles from several states in the union, as well as a half a dozen countries. The lament is the same; there is a dearth of teachers and other professionals with excellent second language proficiency. This crisis was, perhaps, most sharply felt in the United States following the tragic events of September 11, 2001 when the Federal Bureau of Investigation made a public appeal for volunteers capable of translating and interpreting Middle Eastern languages because their on pool of cultural experts was inadequate (Hebel, 2002). The fact that the United States was caught off guard in this area is not surprising. For decades, the U.S. record on foreign language education has been sorely lacking. An examination of the structure of most foreign language programs in the United States, both at the secondary and university levels reveals that the general approach to teaching other languages is so structurally and pedagogically flawed that failure is the norm. To date, the majority of the traditional emphasis in language teaching and learning has been on the component parts of the language structure, especially grammar and vocabulary (Berhardt & Hammadou, 1987; Tedick & Walker, 1994). Not only is the general structural design of the system flawed, but the poor quality or utter lack of adequate foreign language teacher training also exacerbates the problems (see Hammadou & Berhardt, 1988). Unfortunately, despite new innovations in the teaching of foreign languages, including sophisticated interactive software, as well as consistently updated standards from the American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages emphasizing communicative skills and a broader cross-cultural component, the design of mangy foreign language programs continues to emphasize what Hammadou and Bernhardt (1988) called teaching “about the language rather then with the language” (p. 306). Reagan and Osborn (1998) noted, “Since no one could seriously expect the current approach to foreign language education to succeed, then the system is in fact expected, at least to some degree, to fail” (p. 50). Nevertheless, despite the odds against it, examples of success indeed exist. This leads us to the fundamental questions of this particular study: Why is it that some people can reach high- 149
levels of proficiency in a second language while others in the same instructional or social setting struggle to utter even the simplest of sentence structures and what are the implications for improvement in foreign language and second language education (In the United States second language education is commonly understood as English as a Foreign Language (ESL), while foreign language education refers to the study of languages other than English.) To say that someone has a “gift” for language learning seems far too simple an explanation for something as complex as second language (L2) acquisition. Over the last four decades, the focus of many research studies has been the cognitive variations of second-language learning. Individual differences in learning style and strategies are constructs that can often be defined and perhaps even quantified. Not as easily measured, however, are the many affective factors that play an equally important role in the acquisition of a second language. Language learning orientation, motivational style, attitudes, and various other sociocultural constructs were identified as specific factors to consider in the examination of second language acquisition. Motivational Factors The study of motivation and its role in second language acquisition has generated a tremendous amount of data since the late 1960’s. In contrast to many other research areas, studies of motivation in Second Language Acquisition (SLA) have been characterized from the beginning as well articulated and theoretically sound. Dornyei and Skehan (2003) describe the early influential work of Wallace Lambert, Robert Gardner, Richard Clement and their associates as critical in establishing a sound, data-based and empirically tested tradition for L2 motivational research. This Canadian social -psychological approach to L2 motivation is based on several important tenets, including the fact that attitudes toward the L2 community have a strong influence on L2 acquisition. Few people want to learn the language of a “low status” community. R.C. Gardner (1972), one of the first researchers to examine language learning from a social and psychological viewpoint, points out that personal attitudes and motivation are highly influenced by the societal and cultural norms in which one lives. He explains that in societies where learning more than one language is not just common but generally taken for granted, everyone seems to learn two or more “as a matter of course” (p. 131). Equally important are the language learners underlying reasons for acquiring the L2. Is there a desire to communicate with the target language group or are the reasons for learning the L2 centered more on practical reasons, such as the ability to read technical journals or perhaps to advance professionally In one of the first and best-known studies of motivation in second language learning, Gardner and Lambert (1972) identified two motivational orientations for second language learning: Integrative and instrumental. The authors concluded that integratively oriented learners generally want to acquire the second language in order to converse with, find out about, and perhaps even emulate speakers of the target language. Integrative learners usually have positive feelings toward the target language group and culture and may wish to integrate themselves into both areas. The instrumentally oriented learner, on the other hand, generally seeks to acquire the second language for more pragmatic reasons such as job advancement or because it is expected either professionally or socially. Getting to know or understand the people or culture of the target language group is not typically of interest. Gardner and Lambert (1972) concluded that integratively oriented learners tended to attain higher levels of proficiency in the L2 than those with an instrumental orientation. 150
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Journal of Research in Innovative T
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Table of Contents Editor’s Column
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Editor’s Column National Universi
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training-based method for integrati
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The Editorial Board invites the rea
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The Influence of Social Worlds on E
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experience in a strong group settin
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Table 1 Example Scenario of a Burea
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hierarchy ensures a social position
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(see Figure 5). Each member is affo
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through four types of instructional
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Hierarchic (high grid, strong Group
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Figure 10. Didactic Task Structure
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Stansberry, S., & Harris, E. (2005)
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Utilizing current research-based co
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teachers. The instructor kept a mas
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References Coburn, C. E. (2001). Co
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Organizing for Instruction Carefull
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Accelerated Learning 33
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the learning process but rather to
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Csikszentmihalyi (1982) has written
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term (intersession) gets its name b
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Some Important Issues Scott and Con
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esponsibilities). A higher percenta
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them in such a way that the likelih
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makes a valuable contribution to ou
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North American Association of Summe
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E-learning 51
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Academic Learning Today Academic in
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In the original publication by the
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• Individual (1) — Group (2) co
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Challenges and Opportunities From t
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About the Authors Cynthia (Cindy) L
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AGILE TEACHING: A CASE STUDY OF USI
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the scope-by-name feature of Ruby e
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need to deal with. Students learned
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experiment with different options f
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the students evaluate the optimum s
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Using Bibliotherapy as a Tool for C
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different clients and their present
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supervisees with a brief synopsis o
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Stick Figure, by Lori Gottlieb As t
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psychological awareness to encourag
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on the Internet. To keep the classr
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The third portion of the discussion
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Henry, S. (2005). A different appro
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elementary-age students. Linked wit
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considered in multicultural literat
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In Finding One, the conclusion was
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Stephanie: “I learned that some p
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importance in society and in school
Page 104 and 105: published in the United States. Ret
Page 106 and 107: Reading Practices in Elementary Sch
Page 108 and 109: groups of students reading by apply
Page 110 and 111: Table 2 Participant-Reported Teachi
Page 112 and 113: Table 5A Teachers’ Reading Task P
Page 114 and 115: Because electronic texts are increa
Page 116 and 117: Conclusion As teachers work to impr
Page 118 and 119: Bilingual Education and Second Lang
Page 120 and 121: successful in hiring enough qualifi
Page 122 and 123: Five Innovative Strategies That Wor
Page 124 and 125: The third strategy is “Determinin
Page 126 and 127: the categories, synthesized and def
Page 128 and 129: Fereshteh, M. H. (1995). Multicultu
Page 130 and 131: Can Balanced Bilingualism Be Achiev
Page 132 and 133: As may be seen from this discussion
Page 134 and 135: Alternatives to Current Methodologi
Page 136 and 137: education when students are isolate
Page 138 and 139: Conclusion SL learning must be a tw
Page 140 and 141: Language as Tool for a Global Educa
Page 142 and 143: encouraging passive learning. Such
Page 144 and 145: Similarly, their actions or what go
Page 146 and 147: should therefore not be glued to th
Page 148 and 149: Supplementary Reading Since there i
Page 150 and 151: Bruce, M. G., Podemski, R. S., & An
Page 152 and 153: • Sentence combination (using con
Page 156 and 157: Other researchers have challenged t
Page 158 and 159: education classes were taught in Ru
Page 160 and 161: Participants also described how the
Page 162 and 163: Implications and Suggestions for Fu
Page 164 and 165: National University Carlsbad, CA Em
Page 166 and 167: Assessment and Evaluation 161
Page 168 and 169: affordance of opportunities for sel
Page 170 and 171: An examination of the peer-comment
Page 172 and 173: language used in the description an
Page 174 and 175: promotes self-discovery (Saulnier e
Page 176 and 177: Appendix A Sample Language from an
Page 178 and 179: Student Evaluations of Courses and
Page 180 and 181: that there is a consistent positive
Page 182 and 183: (teaching) for all classes (11 item
Page 184 and 185: Figure 1. The Nonlinear Relationshi
Page 186 and 187: About the Authors Nataliya Serdyuko
Page 188 and 189: Best Practices 183
Page 190 and 191: The Textbook Elementary Statistics
Page 192 and 193: If the mean number of visits was as
Page 194 and 195: discussion in such courses is slow;
Page 196 and 197: Table 1. A grade list for a class o
Page 198 and 199: Sloboda, B. W. (2005). Improving th
Page 200 and 201: The Journal of Research in Innovati
Page 202: About the Author In the end of your
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