Journal of Research in Innovative Teaching - National University

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through four types of instructional goal structures, each associated with one of the social worlds. These four types of goal structures specify the interdependence and interaction among students found in the four social worlds. The first is the Cooperative Goal Structure, most commonly associated with Egalitarian learning preferences (low Grid, strong Group). Here, coordination of student behavior as a learning group is necessary to achieve a mutual learning goal; if one achieves, all do. Students perceive that they can obtain their learning goal if, and only if, other students with whom they are linked can obtain their goal. A Competitive Goal Structure is characteristic of the high Grid, weak Group Bureaucratic learning activity. A student strives to achieve his or her goal in a way that blocks all others from achieving the goal. The perception is that the learner can obtain his or her goal if, and only if, other students with whom the learner is linked fail to obtain their goal. This stands in contrast to an Individualist Goal Structure (low Grid, weak Group) in which the achievement of the goal by one student is unrelated to the achievement of the goal by other students. Learners in an Individualist structured learning activity participate knowing that whether or not they achieve the goal has no bearing on whether other students achieve their goal. A fourth type of instructional goal activity is the Coordinated Goal Structure. Agreement between students is necessary to have an organized, collective effort for achieving the goal. Students perceive they can obtain their goal if, and only if, group action maintains harmony through micro-coordination. Each student has a role to play in this Hierarchic learning activity and must fulfill that role so all can achieve the learning goal. Teachers must ask what learning goals are salient and which goal structure most readily facilitates those goal achievements. Intentional use of all four goal structures throughout the curriculum builds intercultural competence and accounts for the range of student social orientations. For many students, the type of goal structure chosen will either sabotage the learning goal from the outset or boost the chances for learning success. Learning Task Structures Teachers should consider organizational patterns associated with social worlds as ways of engaging students in learning activities. How a task is structured should support both learning orientations and learning competencies. Seven organizational patterns considered here are the Individual Task Structure (Individualist), Small Group Task Structure (Hierarchic), Tutorial Task Structure (Bureaucratic), Didactic Task Structure (Bureaucratic/Individualist), Conference Task Structure (Egalitarian), Class Meeting Task Structure (Egalitarian), and Socratic Task Structure (Individualist). An Individual Task Structure is probably the most basic form of organizing an assignment for each student (see Figure 6). The behavioral objectives in an Individual Task Structure revolve around each student autonomously completing an exercise or assignment. Typical verbal instructions could be phrased like the following: “I would like each of you to open your books to p. 38 and answer the question . . . ” The Individual Task Structure is meant to motivate individual efforts most often through recognition of outstanding achievers and is most effective among low Grid, weak Group learners. The rules for the Individualist social world support weak group obligations of the Individual Task Structure. Individualists expect to be personally empowered by knowledge, not relationships, and prefer tasks not dependent on others. 17
Figure 6. Individual Task Structure student TASK TEACHER student TASK student TASK A Socratic task is also an Individualist activity that seeks to capitalize on student readiness to voice individual thinking and public acceptance of challenge to personal opinions (see Figure 7). In a Socratic Task Structure, the teacher has definite cognitive objectives in mind. The instructor becomes both the questioner and facilitator in the activity. Often a teacher will begin by posing a question or problem to solve. The problem should be one that has many possible solutions or is best resolved through open exchange of ideas. Figure 7. Socratic Task Structure student student student TEACHER TASK TASKPro blem student student student One example is to begin by saying, “When presented with a problem, students will offer theories to explain the phenomenon.” After posing and defining the problem, the teacher continues to listen, clarify, assess student comments, and press students to justify their thinking. The Socratic Task Structure requires a highly skilled teacher who must be conscious of processing inquiries and comfortable with little to no finality. The educational consequences for an Individualist also promotes weak role constraints found in the Socratic Task Structure, which emphasizes individual autonomy, personal freedom, and experimentation in the what and how of engaging ideas. Individuals in a Socratic task are encouraged to conjure up innovative ideas, create novel designs, and synergize concepts. The Socratic task is a process of engaging a variety of information domains, focusing attention on details of interest, and adeptly drawing out and combining unrelated components for personal profit (Thompson, 2000). An effective way of involving students in many types of meaningful work, with each student making a contribution, is through a Small Group Task Structure (see Figure 8). As a 18
Page 2 and 3: Journal of Research in Innovative T
Page 4 and 5: Table of Contents Editor’s Column
Page 6 and 7: Editor’s Column National Universi
Page 8 and 9: training-based method for integrati
Page 10 and 11: The Editorial Board invites the rea
Page 12 and 13: The Influence of Social Worlds on E
Page 14 and 15: experience in a strong group settin
Page 16 and 17: Table 1 Example Scenario of a Burea
Page 18 and 19: hierarchy ensures a social position
Page 20 and 21: (see Figure 5). Each member is affo
Page 24 and 25: Hierarchic (high grid, strong Group
Page 26 and 27: Figure 10. Didactic Task Structure
Page 28 and 29: Stansberry, S., & Harris, E. (2005)
Page 30 and 31: Utilizing current research-based co
Page 32 and 33: teachers. The instructor kept a mas
Page 34 and 35: References Coburn, C. E. (2001). Co
Page 36 and 37: Organizing for Instruction Carefull
Page 38 and 39: Accelerated Learning 33
Page 40 and 41: the learning process but rather to
Page 42 and 43: Csikszentmihalyi (1982) has written
Page 44 and 45: term (intersession) gets its name b
Page 46 and 47: Some Important Issues Scott and Con
Page 48 and 49: esponsibilities). A higher percenta
Page 50 and 51: them in such a way that the likelih
Page 52 and 53: makes a valuable contribution to ou
Page 54 and 55: North American Association of Summe
Page 56 and 57: E-learning 51
Page 58 and 59: Academic Learning Today Academic in
Page 60 and 61: In the original publication by the
Page 62 and 63: • Individual (1) — Group (2) co
Page 64 and 65: Challenges and Opportunities From t
Page 66 and 67: About the Authors Cynthia (Cindy) L
Page 68 and 69: AGILE TEACHING: A CASE STUDY OF USI
Page 70 and 71: the scope-by-name feature of Ruby e
Page 72 and 73:
need to deal with. Students learned
Page 74 and 75:
experiment with different options f
Page 76 and 77:
the students evaluate the optimum s
Page 78 and 79:
Using Bibliotherapy as a Tool for C
Page 80 and 81:
different clients and their present
Page 82 and 83:
supervisees with a brief synopsis o
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Stick Figure, by Lori Gottlieb As t
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psychological awareness to encourag
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on the Internet. To keep the classr
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The third portion of the discussion
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Henry, S. (2005). A different appro
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elementary-age students. Linked wit
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considered in multicultural literat
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In Finding One, the conclusion was
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Stephanie: “I learned that some p
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importance in society and in school
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published in the United States. Ret
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Reading Practices in Elementary Sch
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groups of students reading by apply
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Table 2 Participant-Reported Teachi
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Table 5A Teachers’ Reading Task P
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Because electronic texts are increa
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Conclusion As teachers work to impr
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Bilingual Education and Second Lang
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successful in hiring enough qualifi
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Five Innovative Strategies That Wor
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The third strategy is “Determinin
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the categories, synthesized and def
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Fereshteh, M. H. (1995). Multicultu
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Can Balanced Bilingualism Be Achiev
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As may be seen from this discussion
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Alternatives to Current Methodologi
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education when students are isolate
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Conclusion SL learning must be a tw
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Language as Tool for a Global Educa
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encouraging passive learning. Such
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Similarly, their actions or what go
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should therefore not be glued to th
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Supplementary Reading Since there i
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Bruce, M. G., Podemski, R. S., & An
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• Sentence combination (using con
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The Motivational and Attitudinal Ch
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Other researchers have challenged t
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education classes were taught in Ru
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Participants also described how the
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Implications and Suggestions for Fu
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National University Carlsbad, CA Em
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Assessment and Evaluation 161
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affordance of opportunities for sel
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An examination of the peer-comment
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language used in the description an
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promotes self-discovery (Saulnier e
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Appendix A Sample Language from an
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Student Evaluations of Courses and
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that there is a consistent positive
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(teaching) for all classes (11 item
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Figure 1. The Nonlinear Relationshi
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About the Authors Nataliya Serdyuko
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Best Practices 183
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The Textbook Elementary Statistics
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If the mean number of visits was as
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discussion in such courses is slow;
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Table 1. A grade list for a class o
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Sloboda, B. W. (2005). Improving th
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The Journal of Research in Innovati
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About the Author In the end of your
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