PLENTIFUL ENERGY

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to maintain a hard spectrum, the fuel volume fraction needs to be maximized in the core lattice design. Table 14-2. Comparison of neutron economy for various reactor types HWR LWR SFR 2.03 1.92 2.28 0.02 0.09 0.36 - 1 1.05 1.01 1.64 Losses: Structure 0.09 0.03 0.16 Coolant 0.03 0.08 0.01 Fis. Prod. 0.11 0.16 0.06 Leakage 0.08 0.15 0.05 Decay - - 0.03 Subtotal 0.31 0.42 0.31 Excess Neutrons (CR or BR) 0.74 0.59 1.33 A high fuel volume fraction is more easily achieved in a hexagonal lattice arrangement than in the rectangular lattice adopted in all light water reactors. For a given lattice pitch to pin diameter ratio, the hexagonal lattice gives about a 15% higher fuel pin volume fraction. Fuel pins thus arranged in a hexagonal array inside a hexagonal assembly duct are shown in Figure 14-3. The hexagonal fuel assemblies are again arranged in a hexagonal core layout, as shown in Figure 14-4. The edge assemblies are absent so that the core can fit into the smallest possible cylindrical reactor vessel. For a given hexagonal lattice, a high fuel volume fraction is achieved by increasing the fuel pin diameter and reducing the lattice pitch (which reduces the coolant area). The structural volume fraction is minimized by reducing the cladding thickness and the hexagonal duct wall thickness. These design parameters are subject to thermal-hydraulic and mechanical design constraints which will be discussed below. But we will look at the effects of pin diameter on volume fractions first, as presented in Table 14-3. Only the pin diameter is varied, and the other design parameters are constrained by thermal-hydraulic and mechanical design constraints presented in the next section. As shown in Table 14-3, a small change in pin diameter has a much greater impact on the fuel volume fraction, which in turn has a significant impact on the breeding ratio and other core performance characteristics. The volume fractions do 309
not add up to unity, since the bond sodium is ignored as it tends to get pushed out of the core to the upper plenum region as the fuel swells out to the cladding. Corner Subchannel Edge Subchannel Fuel Pin and Wire Interior Subchannel Duct Wall H Fuel Pin D Wire Wrap P Figure 14-3. Fuel pin arrangement in a hexagonal duct INNER CORE P P P OUTER CORE P P P S S P S P P REFLECTOR or BLANKET P S P P SHIELD P P P CONTROL RODS Inner core (78) Figure 14-4. Typical hexagonal core layout Outer core (102) P Primary control (15) S Secondary control (4) Reflector (114) Shield (66) 310
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PLENTIFUL ENERGY The Story of the I
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Copyright © 2011 Charles E. Till a
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CONTENTS FOREWORD .................
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CHAPTER 10 APPLICATION OF PYROPROCE
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FOREWORD On a breezy December day i
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CHAPTER 1 ARGONNE NATIONAL LABORATO
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even now is straining the limits of
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with events and time. Till saw the
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it, I saw how a national laboratory
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Figure 1-2. West stands of the Stag
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development of nuclear power for ci
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depended on U.S. ability to maintai
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construction funding kept increasin
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faced a nightmarish combination of
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concept in the next decade.) In sti
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was based on EBR-I experience, but
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Figure 1-9. Experimental Breeder Re
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Figure 1-11. Rendering of the EBR-I
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performance. But the decision had b
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its shakedown in early years it jus
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sense primarily a commercial power
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without electrical generation, the
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Its purpose was to demonstrate the
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of each period, which the managemen
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CHAPTER 2 THE INTEGRAL FAST REACTOR
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A line had been pursued that the re
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The IFR refining process also produ
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director of Argonne a year or two b
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eporting on nuclear power developme
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A few weeks later, the mid-term ele
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2.6 Summary In late 1983, the line
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Argonne would be. My Ph.D. at Imper
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I had worked at the United Kingdom
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hadn‘t bothered us with it. But t
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But I had gone over and over the on
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laboratories.‖ Incidentally, late
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Argonne by this time was one of sev
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3.1.2 Life at the Laboratory in the
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An anecdote: In the cooperative arr
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Cycle Facility‖ went. We pushed i
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(LMFBR), which assumed a very rapid
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the pool was a settled issue; it wa
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During the early stage of the IFR p
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scientific work, not on non-essenti
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e generally held, even as facts inc
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cf per day from Canada via pipeline
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serious, and it is made more seriou
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global economy. The LWR, and the Ad
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supply 11%, and one, the world‘s
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Fatih Birol, has recently been quot
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gas production of little use in the
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expenditures during a decade starti
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thousand tonnes in one large increm
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But the principal line of developme
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Tar sands and oil shale recovery ar
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14. W. H. Ziegler, C. J. Campbell,
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Argonne had been a part of the deve
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Breaches or holes in the fuel cladd
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waste. For efficiency in uranium us
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Further, as a metal, sodium does no
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to the boundaries and many leak fro
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is debatable, it remains our belief
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CHAPTER 6 IFR FUEL CHARACTERISTICS,
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To do this, an extraordinarily simp
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Further cementing the decision was
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the AEC, but the reactor operation
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hands-on access needed to accomplis
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temperature. However, a very substa
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It turned out that the high-plutoni
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In the column ―Pu content % heavy
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40 start-ups and shutdowns 5 15% ov
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During casting, a partial vacuum (1
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is in fact a new fuel. Plutonium-ba
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8. G. L. Hofman and L. C. Walters,
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characteristics necessary for this.
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exchangers, and the steam generator
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experiments, as mentioned; this has
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sufficient to allow radioactive rel
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In the IFR, this loss of the coolin
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Figure7- 2. Reactor outlet temperat
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for thermal expansion of heavy stru
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power to shut down power is basical
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criticality. The debris is in the f
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7.10.2 The EBR-I Partial Meltdown T
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7.11 Licensing Implications What ar
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The sodium flowing into the steam g
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[15] Provisions are also made to co
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disassembly comes, it is with a rea
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CHAPTER 8 THE PYROPROCESS In the ne
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EBR-II purposes, and it established
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valuable fuel constituents, uranium
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and materials and it had been renam
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The first operation is done in the
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into the receiver crucible. The hea
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In the final step, the pins are arr
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Spent Fuel Processed, kg effective
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products, highly radioactive and se
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its own bayonet-style partial inter
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If the bond sodium along with the s
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CHAPTER 9 THE BASIS OF THE ELECTROR
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Whether or not a given reaction can
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9.3 Kinetics of the Reactions Chemi
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The exponential exp((E f -E b )/RT)
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The electrorefining process brings
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cathode operation. Once the solutio
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Table 9-2. Measured data and calcul
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All four measurements show that eve
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The free energy of the reaction of
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2. At an actinide chloride ratio of
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CHAPTER 10 APPLICATION OF PYROPROCE
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10.2 Electrolytic Reduction Step 10
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The pyrochemical process simply sup
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Figure 10-1. Electrolytic reduction
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The distribution of fuel constituen
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an electrorefiner with a 5001,000 k
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aqueous reprocessing plant. The eco
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Li metal at the cathode. Lithium me
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4. D. W. Dees and J. P. Ackerman,
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Our intent for the IFR technology w
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dose to any member of the public mu
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IFR process, as we shall see, does
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Relative Radiological Toxicity uran
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doses from Tc-99 and I-129 equilibr
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Fraction of Initial Actinide, % pro
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long-lived fission products and tra
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to decay to the point where they co
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References 1. ―Nuclear Waste Poli
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12.1 Introduction Assessment of a p
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History provides empirical evidence
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program offered nations help with n
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Other nations are recycling their s
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uranium-233 cycle has been half-hea
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electrorefiner salt. And this, of c
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those concentrations in making the
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Page 272 and 273: It is now known that the plutonium
Page 274 and 275: 12.8 Monitoring of Processes Always
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Page 278 and 279: Such a system tracks the quantity a
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Page 282 and 283: 12.13 Summary In IFR technology the
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Page 286 and 287: The earliest fast reactors designed
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Page 290 and 291: levels, actually higher than the di
Page 292 and 293: for the backend of the fuel cycle,
Page 294 and 295: $/lb Uranium Price, $/lb U3O8 the f
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Page 298 and 299: $/kg 1200 1000 $1000/kg Rep Cost Pu
Page 300 and 301: Table 13-7. Summary Comparison of F
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Page 306 and 307: 13.6 System Aspects The previous se
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Page 310 and 311: 5. S. C. Chetal, ―India‘s Fast
Page 312 and 313: capacity over this century, in a sy
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Page 316 and 317: It is suspected that the lead corro
Page 318 and 319: Neutron Yield, Eta Value A = number
Page 322 and 323: Table 14-3. Effects of fuel pin dia
Page 324 and 325: Fuel Volume Fraction have a large e
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Page 332 and 333: Doubling Time, yrs the reactivity c
Page 334 and 335: 14.7 Worldwide Fast Reactor Experie
Page 336 and 337: limit to its life. The ingenuity of
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Page 340 and 341: 14.9 How to Deploy Pyroprocessing P
Page 342 and 343: construction projects. They may see
Page 344 and 345: inferior to sodium in their thermal
Page 346: 5. Federation of American Scientist
Page 349 and 350: Supporting the reactor design and c
Page 352 and 353: ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS In beginning this
Page 354 and 355: APPENDIX A DETAILED EXPLANATION OF
Page 356 and 357: The actinide metals (uranium, pluto
Page 358 and 359: As noted above, the interactions ri
Page 360 and 361: 3. Equilibrium coefficients give th
Page 362 and 363: ion is created at the anode. Bulk t
Page 364 and 365: proceed spontaneously. If the magni
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Page 368 and 369: increases with increasing temperatu
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Equilibrium in a chemical system is
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Exp(-ΔG o /RT) = [ U / Pu ] [ U /
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―in solution.‖ More Pu added to
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appropriate values are used for the
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A.9.5 The Second Cathode Regime: On
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in the real world. Uranium dendrite
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This is the significant number. The
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For those who are curious, the elec
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of concentration of uranium chlorid
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agreement with the measured ratio w
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eference 7. The important calculati
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as well. The numbers were obtained
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Run3: Plutonium isn’t, Uranium is
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The final actinide chloride ratios
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values of several of the constants
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HCDA HFEF HM HWR HTR IAEA ICRP IEA
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ABOUT THE AUTHORS Dr. CHARLES E. TI
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