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Roman Britain: military dimension • 141 • (e.g. Figure 8.5d), though their internal buildings, where known, were of timber. Late watchtowers, as attested along the coast of North Yorkshire, show similar developments as compared to their first- and second-century predecessors; that at Filey is described below (Figure 8.6c). Fort sites can often be quite closely dated. Knowledge of the overall historical framework provided by the literary account and the epigraphic sources usually allows a general context to be established. Refinement of that chronology derives from the associated material remains, particularly the coins, pottery and, to a lesser extent, glass and metalwork. Study of Roman pottery, particularly the fine tablewares, and most notably the ubiquitous imported red glossware known as Samian, is so well developed as to allow quite close dating by that means alone in the first and second centuries AD. Occasionally, circumstances permit even closer dating when waterlogged conditions preserve structural timbers that can be dated by dendrochronology. CHANGING PERCEPTIONS The most substantive change in our perception of the military occupation of Britain since the Second World War has been brought about by aerial reconnaissance, which is the single most important method of discovering new archaeological sites from the Neolithic period onwards. The combination of the morphological distinction of Roman military sites and the primary Roman period interest of some major aerial photographic practitioners has resulted in a massive increase in our knowledge of the numbers, types and distributions of both temporary and permanent military installations. This, in turn, has greatly enhanced our understanding of the process of conquest and consolidation. Some 45% of all forts and fortlets in Scotland, for example, and the vast majority of all temporary camps in Britain have been discovered from the air since the last war (e.g. Figure 8.2). Excavation techniques have developed significantly also, though their impact has been less dramatic and far-reaching. Military establishments were for long thought to be sufficiently regular in both form and lay-out to require only minimal examination. Thus, up to the 1970s, a process of small-scale sampling was deemed adequate to elucidate their history and development, as exemplified in the excavations at Fendoch (Perthshire), Birrens (Dumfriesshire) and Longthorpe, near Peterborough. It has since been realized that forts were less regular and standardized, and that their periods of occupation may be more complex. This requires more extensive investigation, as has been undertaken at, for example, Elginhaugh (Midlothian) and South Shields and Wallsend in north-east England. Both of these developments have in turn contributed to an increasing emphasis being placed on archaeological evidence in its own right, more than simply as an adjunct to the literary sources that previously always took primacy. Such an approach is illustrated, for example, in the lengthy reassessment of the role of Agricola in the conquest of the north of Britain (Hanson 1991). While the development of radiocarbon dating, so important for prehistory, has had little or no impact on Roman archaeology because of its imprecision, dendrochronology has had some significant impact where excavation has recovered quantities of waterlogged timber. Dating by matching tree-ring patterns on oak timbers to a master sequence can give a chronological precision equal to the best historical or epigraphic dating. It has been responsible, for example, for the pushing back of the long-accepted date for the establishment of the fort at Carlisle, contributing to the reassessment of the chronology of the conquest of the north. Other aspects of archaeological science are also proving significant. Most important has been the analysis of environmental evidence from excavations, both pollen and macro-fossil remains. These have
• 142 • W.S.Hanson Figure 8.4 Site plans: fortresses: a. Inchtuthil; b. Red House, Corbridge. made considerable contributions to our understanding of the impact of the Roman army on the local environment, particularly the extent to which it was responsible for deforestation, as well as to considerations of the diet of the troops, and the logistics of their food supply (e.g. Breeze 1984; Hanson 1997).
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The Archaeology of Britain The Arch
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First published 1999 by Routledge 1
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• vi • Contents Chapter Eight R
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• viii • Figures 5.3 Ceramic ch
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• x • Figures 15.5 Garden and l
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• xii • Contributors Landscape
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Preface The idea for the approach t
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• 2 • Ian Ralston and John Hunt
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• 10 • Ian Ralston and John Hun
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• 12 • Ian Ralston and John Hun
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• 14 • Nicholas Barton Table 2.
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• 16 • Nicholas Barton —from
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• 30 • Nicholas Barton Figure 2
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• 32 • Nicholas Barton Figure 2
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• 34 • Nicholas Barton Walker,
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• 36 • Steven Mithen substantia
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• 38 • Steven Mithen locations.
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• 40 • Steven Mithen Figure 3.4
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• 42 • Steven Mithen Figure 3.6
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• 44 • Steven Mithen from work
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• 46 • Steven Mithen use of obs
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• 48 • Steven Mithen provided e
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• 50 • Steven Mithen Attempts h
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• 52 • Steven Mithen may reflec
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• 54 • Steven Mithen seeds from
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• 56 • Steven Mithen Pollard, T
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Chapter Four The Neolithic period,
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• 60 • Alasdair Whittle graves
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• 62 • Alasdair Whittle resourc
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• 64 • Alasdair Whittle Figure
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• 66 • Alasdair Whittle other s
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• 68 • Alasdair Whittle Figure
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• 72 • Alasdair Whittle hundred
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• 74 • Alasdair Whittle and els
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• 76 • Alasdair Whittle Moffett
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• 78 • Mike Parker Pearson diff
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• 82 • Mike Parker Pearson argu
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• 84 • Mike Parker Pearson Late
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• 86 • Mike Parker Pearson been
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• 88 • Mike Parker Pearson Figu
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Page 111 and 112: • 96 • Timothy Champion For the
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Page 129 and 130: • 114 • Colin Haselgrove votive
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Page 151 and 152: • 136 • W.S.Hanson Table 8.1 Ev
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Page 171 and 172: • 156 • W.S.Hanson Bibliography
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Page 191 and 192: Chapter Ten Early Historic Britain
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• 192 • Catherine Hills Figure
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Chapter Eleven The Scandinavian pre
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• 196 • Julian D.Richards There
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• 208 • Julian D.Richards stage
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Chapter Twelve Landscapes of the Mi
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• 212 • John Schofield Other to
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• 214 • John Schofield A second
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• 216 • John Schofield Suburbs
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• 218 • John Schofield archaeol
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• 220 • John Schofield continuo
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• 222 • John Schofield environm
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• 226 • John Schofield phenomen
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Chapter Thirteen Landscapes of the
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• 230 • Roberta Gilchrist until
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• 232 • Roberta Gilchrist multi
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• 234 • Roberta Gilchrist house
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• 236 • Roberta Gilchrist Figur
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• 238 • Roberta Gilchrist Welsh
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• 240 • Roberta Gilchrist The a
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• 242 • Roberta Gilchrist refer
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• 244 • Roberta Gilchrist bowl,
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• 246 • Roberta Gilchrist Aston
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• 248 • Paul Stamper peasants.
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• 250 • Paul Stamper The first
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• 254 • Paul Stamper Figure 14.
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• 256 • Paul Stamper carpenters
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• 258 • Paul Stamper ‘open’
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• 260 • Paul Stamper replanning
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• 262 • Paul Stamper projects (
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Chapter Fifteen The historical geog
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• 266 • Ian Whyte villages—te
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• 268 • Ian Whyte Figure 15.2 M
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• 270 • Ian Whyte LANDSCAPE App
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• 272 • Ian Whyte gardens had b
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• 274 • Ian Whyte The need of i
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• 276 • Ian Whyte TOWNSCAPES Ur
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• 278 • Ian Whyte Buxton, Derby
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Chapter Sixteen The workshop of the
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• 282 • Kate Clark writing duri
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• 284 • Kate Clark Industrial a
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• 286 • Kate Clark Archaeologic
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• 288 • Kate Clark nevertheless
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• 290 • Kate Clark production t
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• 292 • Kate Clark Some rivers
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• 294 • Kate Clark however, can
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• 296 • Kate Clark have the maj
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• 298 • Timothy Darvill never p
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• 300 • Timothy Darvill What un
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• 304 • Timothy Darvill methodo
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• 312 • Timothy Darvill Archaeo
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• 314 • Timothy Darvill its fut
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Index Illustrations are indicated b
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• 318 • Index period 187-8; Ang
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• 320 • Index Doarlish Cashen (
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• 322 • Index Helston (Corn), t
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• 324 • Index Mill Hill (Kent)
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• 326 • Index St Andrews (Fife)
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• 328 • Index waggonways see tr
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