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452 statistical universal
the aim of identifying the distinctive characteristics of the speaker or writer
(as in stylostatistics); but attempts have also been made to establish general laws
concerning the statistical characteristics of languages, such as the relationship
between word types (e.g. the word up) and word tokens (e.g. the number of
instances of the word up in a sample), the relative frequency of items in different
samples, the quantification of such notions as redundancy in statistical terms,
and so on. See also quantitative linguistics.
statistical universal
see universal
stative (adj./n.) (stat, STAT) A term used in grammatical classification referring
to one of two main aspectual categories of verb use, the other being dynamic.
The distinguishing criteria for stativity are mainly syntactic; for example, stative,
static or state verbs do not usually occur in a progressive form (e.g. *I am
knowing, *He is concerning), nor in the imperative (e.g. *know!). On semantic
grounds, they can be said to express states of affairs, rather than actions, i.e.
the expression of relational processes (e.g. be, belong to, involve, seem) or of
inactive perceptual or cognitive processes (e.g. know, mean, realize, suppose).
The classification is complicated by the existence of verbs which have both a
stative and a dynamic use, e.g. smell.
status planning
see language planning
stem (n.) A term often used in linguistics as part of a classification of the
kinds of elements operating within the structure of a word. The stem may
consist solely of a single root morpheme (i.e. a ‘simple’ stem, as in man), or of
two root morphemes (e.g. a ‘compound’ stem, as in blackbird), or of a root
morpheme plus a derivational affix (i.e. a ‘complex’ stem, as in manly,
unmanly, manliness). All have in common the notion that it is to the stem that
inflectional affixes are attached.
stereotype (n.) (1) A term used by some grammarians for a sequence of
words which resembles a productive grammatical structure but which in
fact has been learned as a single unit and has little or no productivity. Proverbs,
quotations, aphorisms and several types of idiom can be classed as grammatical
stereotypes: the sentence Jack and Jill went up the hill, for example, might be
used by a young child who is not yet at the stage of producing co-ordinations
or past tenses in spontaneous speech. Stereotyped constructions are particularly
common in the speech of those suffering from language handicap.
(2) In semantics, especially in theories of direct reference, a term used for a
set of properties regarded by a community of speakers as characterizing typical
members of a category. The term is intended to allow for inaccurate beliefs on
the part of the speaker community, so that actual members of the category may
not typically conform to the stereotype at all; none the less, knowledge of the
stereotype is required for semantic competence in the language.
(3) In sociolinguistics, a term referring to a linguistic variable which is a
widely recognized characterization of the speech of a particular group, which
may or may not reflect accurately the speech of those it is supposed to represent.
Examples include the imagined universality of chap in England, look you in