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The Internet in China 117To borrow from Roland Barthes (1972: 114), nationalism and consumerismin China’s cyberspace are both “second-order semiological systems” thatstructure online experiences at a deeper level. Together, they reduce the spectrumof possibilities to a single core identity: that of a Chinese consumer. Thisnucleus of cultural identification is surrounded by an endless number of youthsubcultures, hobby clubs, professional networks, and special-interest associationswith varying degree of marginality, including faith-based movements(Zhao, 2004), gay and lesbian groups (Wang, 2003), and websites for thepreservation of minority nationality cultures (Zhang, 2003). There areconstraining effects of predominant cultural representations, but the pluralityof online identities has surpassed the level of China’s traditional media due tothe interactivity of the medium and its ability to reach beyond boundaries. Aselsewhere, there is a profound transformation into a new media culture whichinvolves a readjustment of time and space coordinates, a shortening of attentionspan, a pastiche of global and local events, and an ever-increasing eclecticismunder apparently fixed categories.REFLECTIONS: CHINA AND THE NETWORKSCentral to an examination of the Internet in China is the classic contradictionbetween “technologies of freedom” (Pool, 1983) and hierarchical “statism”(Castells, 1996), which was rendered particularly acute by the scale and speedof development on both sides of the juxtaposition. Has the Internet liberalizedChina? Or has the Chinese state succeeded in creating an Internet in its ownimage? Empirical evidence is far more intricate than any framework of binaryopposition, as network formations in the PRC are situated in a unique“communication action context” (Ball-Rokeach et al., 2001; Qiu, 2003) oflegacies, institutions, social groups, and cultural identities.Although the Chinese state remains robust and active in pursuing itseconomic, political, and ideological goals, the logic of profit maximization hasalso emerged as a predominant principle, particularly in large cities likeShanghai and the coastal South China region. Yet the phenomenal growth ofthe Internet occurred, together with a host of new or renewed social networks,largely owing to the developmental state and the entrepreneurial marketing ofthe multinationals. In this process, the social structure induced by technologicalgrowth is molded and substantiated by the global force of late capitalism,China’s national institutional heritage, and by more diverse forms of systemconfiguration in sub-national regions, cities, the countryside, and trans-boundarycommunities of all kinds.In addition, beneath the network of fast growth is a series of interconnectedconditions that are unfavorable to the expansion and integration of Internet