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232Z. M. A. N. LEAO ET ALLIdistinction between the inshore and offshore reefs,with some sites from the latter group alreadydecayed to conditions quite similar to those of theinshore reefs. These sites must be closely monitoredand need to be target of management actions.Occurrence of coral bleaching and disease: Thestrongest coral bleaching events registered along thecoast of Eastern Brazil have been associated withwarming of the sea surface temperature. When seasurface anomalies reached values of 1 ºC during oneto two weeks, as occurred in 1998, 2003 and 2005along the whole coast of the state of Bahia, morethan 30% of bleached corals were registered in theinshore reefs along an extent of about 500 km. Inthese periods, the reefs located in the northernmostpart of the state (e.g., the North Coast and Todos osSantos Bay) were the most affected. In this area, theaverage bleaching of colonies reached values above50% (see figure 2). In the offshore reefs ofAbrolhos, the percentage of bleaching was milder,ranging from 8 to 18% in 2003 and reaching anaverage of 25% in 2005.When thermal anomalies were between 0.50to 0.75 ºC for less than one week, as occurred in2001 and 2002, or around 0.25 ºC, as in 2000 and2004, the average coral bleaching was lower than10%, even in the inshore reefs of Tinhare andBoipeba (see figure 3). During 2006, 2007 and 2008,no thermal anomalies occurred along the coast ofBrazil, and signals of bleaching in coral coloniesduring experiments on the northern (Todos os SantosBay) and southern (Abrolhos) coasts of EasternBrazil were very mild, remaining lower than 12% ofthe surveyed coral colonies.Overall, based on these occurrences, we seea strong linkage between strong coral bleaching andperiods of elevated sea surface temperatures inEastern Brazil. Additionally, reefs already impactedby processes operating in the coastal zone, theinshore reefs, are most susceptible to bleaching.Other examples include the reefs of Jamaica andSouth Florida, which are threatened by anthropogenicimpacts and have been strongly affected bysuccessive bleaching events (Hughes et al. 2003,Goldberg & Wilkson 2004).Adding to those pieces of evidence, aBayesian model developed by Krug (2008), basedon the maximum sea surface temperature accumulatedin five years, light attenuation in water, rainfallmagnitude, zonal and meridional wind fields derivedfrom remote sensing and analysis and reanalysisdata, shows the complex nature of bleaching patternsin Eastern Brazil. This model points to a scenariowhere factors such as the period, the intensity and/orthe geographical position of the bleached corals,determine the bleaching pattern. The model showsevidence that high sea surface temperaturecontrolled bleaching events on the North Coast andTodos os Santos Bay. However, in the Abrolhosarea, where bleaching events were weaker than thenorthern reefs, there is a large amount of variabilityof surface temperature, precipitation and winds,suggesting that, for example, the 2003 bleachingevent was mostly influenced by low watertransparency and increased rainfall. Thus, the modelconcludes that the bleaching pattern in EasternBrazil is a highly complex system that might beresponding to both global and regional forcingfactors.Although Brazilian reefs have beencoexisting for a long time with natural occurrence ofextreme environmental conditions, such as highsedimentation rates, low light penetration levels andperiodic thermal stress, coral bleaching has not yetcaused coral mass mortality. Such threat could occurin the future, considering that a worldwideintensification of warm sea surface temperatureanomalies is expected (Hoegh-Guldberg 1999,Maynard et al. 2009). In addition, it is known thatthere is also a positive link between coral diseaseincidences and stresses arising from global warming(Selig et al. 2006; Bruno et al. 2007; Ainsworth &Hoegh-Guldberg 2009). Anomalously higher watertemperatures may enhance the probability of coraldisease outbreaks by increasing the abundance orvirulence of pathogens or by increasing the hostsusceptibility, as bleached corals are moresusceptible to diseases than healthy ones (Muller etal. 2008). Moreover, coral bleaching and diseasemust be also intensified by the rapid deterioration ofcoastal waters, a factor that will enforce thedegradation of the Brazilian inshore reefs.As stated by Francini-Filho et al. (2008), theconsequences of a coral decline due the intensificationof diseases, for the maintenance of reefintegrity, in a region with high endemism levels, arenot yet totally predictable. Nevertheless, in thespecific case of the relatively low diversity Brazilianreef ecosystem, it may be more catastrophic thanpreviously anticipated. It is therefore important toincrease our knowledge of the reef processes and todevelop a better capacity in Brazil for implementingstrategies that will enhance the chances for the reefsto resist future sea surface temperature warming.Thus, urgent actions regarding the conservation ofthis reef region is needed. Many initiativesconcerned with coral reef protection, managementand recovery have been developed in Brazil duringthe last few years (Rodriguez-Ramirez et al. 2008),Pan-American Journal of Aquatic Sciences (2010), 5(2): 224-235
Brazilian coral reefs in time of climate changes233but much effort is still needed for the effectiveconservation of the reefs. The survival of these reefswill depend upon an appropriate understanding of allprocesses involved in the reef ecosystem functioningand maintenance, and on the effective managementand sustainable use of their resources. The complexitiesinvolving important processes like euthrophication,spread of coral diseases and coral bleachingdemand deliberate actions toward a long-term reefmonitoring and increase in society’s awareness.ReferencesAinsworth, T. D. & Hoegh-Guldberg, O. 2009.Bacterial communities closely associated withcoral t<strong>issue</strong>s vary under experimental andnatural reef conditions and thermal stress.Aquatic Biology, 4(3): 289-296.Amaral, F. M. D., Steiner, A. Q., Broadhurst, M. K.& Cairns, S. D. 2008. An overview of theshallow-water calcified hydroids from Brazil(Hydrozoa: Cnidaria), including the descriptionof a new species. Zootaxa, 1930: 56-68.Araujo, T. M. F. 1984. Morfologia, composição,sedimentologia e história evolutiva do recifede coral da Ilha de Itaparica, Bahia. MSc.Dissertation. Universidade Federal da Bahia,Salvador, Brasil. 92 p.Aronson, R. B., Edmunds, P. J., Precht, W. F.,Swanson, D. W. & Levitan, D. R. 1994.Large-scale, long-term monitoring of Caribbeancoral reefs: simple, quick, inexpensive techniques.Atoll Research Bulletin, 421: 1-19.Aronson, R. B. & Swanson, D. W. 1997. Videosurveys: uni and multivariate applications.Proceeding 8 th International Coral ReefSymposium, Panamá, 2: 1441-1446.Belém, M. J. C., Rohlfs, C., Pires, D. O. & Castro,C. B. 1982. S.O.S. Corais. Revista CiênciaHoje, 5: 34-42.Bittencourt, A. C. S. P., Dominguez, J. M. L.,Martin, L. & Silva, I. R. 2005. Longshoretransport on the northeastern Brazilian coastand implications to the location of large scaleaccumulative and erosive zones: An overview.Marine Geology, 219: 219–234.Bruno, J. F., Selig, E. R., Casey, K. S., Page, C. A.,Willis, B. L., Harvell, C. D., Sweatman, H. &Melendy, A. M. 2007. Thermal stress andcoral cover as drives of coral diseaseoutbreaks. Plos Biology, 5(6): 1220-1227.Carleton, J. H. & Done, T. J. 1995. Quantitativevideo sampling of coral reef benthos: largescaleapplication. Coral Reefs, 14: 35-46.Castro, C. B. 1994. Corals of Southern Bahia. Pp.161-176. In: Hetzel, B. & Castro, C. B. (Eds.).AcknowledgementsThe data presented in this article originatedfrom several projects with financial supportfrom various sources: MCT, CNPq, FAPESB,FINEP, CAPES and CI-Brazil through the MarineManage-ment Areas Program – Brazil Node. Theauthors are grateful to the administrators of theAbrolhos National Marine Park for logisticalsupport, as well as to all those that participated infield works.Corals of Southern Bahia, Rio de Janeiro,Editora Nova Fronteira. 185 p.Castro, C. B. & Pires, D. O. 1999. A bleaching eventon a Brazilian coral reef. Brazilian Journalof Oceanography, 47: 87-90.Castro, C. B. & Pires, D. O. 2001. Brazilian coralreefs: what we already know and what is stillmissing. Bulletin of Marine Science, 69(2):357-371.Chaves, E. M. 2007. Crescimento linear ebranqueamento dos corais Siderastrea spp eMontastrea cavernosa na Baía de Todos osSantos. BSc. Monography, Faculdade deTecnologia e Ciência. 49 p.Costa Jr, O. S., Leão, Z. M. A. N., Nimmo, M. &Atrill, M. 2000. Nutrification impacts on coralreefs from Northern Bahia, Brazil.Hydrobiology, 440: 307-316.Costa Jr, O. S., Attrill, M., Nimmo, M. 2006.Seasonal and spatial controls on the deliveryof excess nutrients to nearshore and offshorecoral reefs of Brazil. Journal of MarineSystems, 60: 63-74.Cruz, I. C. 2008. Recifes de corais da Baía de Todosos Santos, caracterização, avaliação e identificaçãode áreas prioritárias para conservação.MSc. Dissertation. Universidade Federal daBahia, Salvador, Brasil, 102 p.Cruz, I. C., Kikuchi, R. K. P. & Leão, Z. M. A. N.2009. Caracterização dos recifes de corais daárea de preservação ambiental da Baía deTodos os Santos para fins de manejo, Bahia,Brasil. Revista da Gestão CosteiraIntegrada, 9: 16-36.De Paula, A. F. & Creed, J. C. 2004. Two species ofthe coral Tubastraea (Cnidaria, Scleractinia)in Brazil: a case of accidental introduction.Bulletin of Marine Science, 74(1): 175-183.Dutra, L. X. C. 2000. O branqueamento de coraishermatípicos no litoral norte da Bahiaassociado ao evento El-Niño 1998. BSc.Monography, Universidade Federal da Bahia,Salvador, Brasil. 78 p.Pan-American Journal of Aquatic Sciences (2010), 5(2): 224-235
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