Livelihoods of the Poor 25Figure 2.8: Employment by sector per 1,000 urban employed males, 1988–2010Source: NSSO 2007–08 (Round 64) and 2009–10 (Round 66).Figure 2.9: Employment by sector per 1,000 urban employed females, 1988–2010Source: NSSO 2007–08 (Round 64) and 2009–10 (Round 66).
26 State of India’s Livelihoods <strong>Report</strong> <strong>2011</strong>number of urban women involved in‘other services’ from 336/1,000 in 1988to 383/1,000 in 2010 but this has alsodecreased in the last two years. 7 One ofthe fastest growing sub-sectors in ‘otherservices’ is probably domestic work wherejobs are of notoriously poor quality.• Participation of urban male workers inmanufacturing has clearly declined (fallingfrom 260/1,000 in 1988 to 218/1,000in 2010).• Participation of urban female workersin manufacturing may be on the rise butat 279 in 2010, still only stands at a littleabove the 1988 levels of 269 of 1,000.• This increase is unlikely to indicate a risein particularly good quality jobs, sincea large proportion of women’s work inurban manufacturing tends to be homebased,offering flexibility but very lowwages.2.2.3. Work participation in the‘invisible’ domestic sphereA range of productive and reproductiveactivities that are integral to livelihoodsoccur in the domestic sphere. Womenare the primary workers engaged in theseactivities but men too are involved althoughin much fewer numbers. The productivevalue of unpaid work that women do isoften ‘invisible’ as work, even to womenthemselves—they consider it as a naturalextension of their traditional householdand childcare responsibilities.The definition of work and workers in theNSSO is such that it includes only a part ofwomen’s productive and reproductive workas ‘work’, and only those women in suchworks as ‘workers’. Self-employed womenwho are helpers in the family enterprisesand do not earn any regular wages fall inthis definition of work and are counted asworkers in categories 92 and 93. However,even these women, unless they are subsidiaryworkers, are not counted as being in thelabour force—as those working or willingto work.According to the United Nations Systemof National Accounts (UNSNA), productionof any good for consumption is includedin the definition of economic activity andhence those engaged in such activities areconsidered as workers. 8 See Table 2.1 forthe list of tasks.Table 2.1: ‘Domestic’ tasks included in NSSO Category 92 and 93, and UNSNAPrincipal Activity Status92 and 93 and engagedin specific economicactivities but not includedin subsidiary statusworkers categoryUNSNA activities notclassified as economicactivities in India andalso not included in thesubsidiary status workerscategoryMaintenance ofkitchen gardens,orchards, etc.Work in householdpoultry, dairy, etc.Free collectionof fish, smallgames, wild fruits,vegetables, etc.,for householdconsumptionPreparation ofgur for householdconsumptionFree collectionof firewood,cow dung,cattle feed, etc.,for householdconsumptionSewing,tailoring,weaving, forhousehold useDe-husking ofpaddy forhouseholdconsumptionPreservation ofmeat and fish forhousehold useGrinding of foodgrainsfor householdconsumptionMaking baskets andmats for household usePreparation of cowdung cake for use asfuel in householdSource: Raveendran (2010).7‘Other services’ requires some further explanationsince it may be growing in importance for urbanwomen workers. It includes education and healthworkers, public administration, real estate, financialintermediation and urban services. The most significantfor urban women are health and education, andfor urban men, public administration and real estate(NSSO <strong>2011</strong>).8Thus, processing of primary products like dehuskingof paddy, grinding of foodgrains, preparationof gur and preservation of meat, fish, etc., for householdconsumption are treated as economic activitiesas per the UNSNA. Similarly, making of baskets andmats, preparation of cow dung cake, sewing, tailoring,weaving, etc., for household use are also included in the
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