1.2. <strong>The</strong> Extreme risk of food security Large populations of Afgh<strong>an</strong>s are also confronted with food insecurity, which is partly linked to the poor perform<strong>an</strong>ce of irrigated agriculture. According to <strong>The</strong> Food <strong>Security</strong> Risk Index 2010, Afgh<strong>an</strong>ist<strong>an</strong> is r<strong>an</strong>ked among the top nine countries in the ‘Extreme risk’ category of food security (Maplecroft, 2011). Unfortunately, the potential of irrigation is not being embraced in Afgh<strong>an</strong>ist<strong>an</strong>, <strong>an</strong>d l<strong>an</strong>d cultivation is low mainly due to poor irrigation systems. According to the Afgh<strong>an</strong>ist<strong>an</strong> Hum<strong>an</strong> Development Report (AHDR) 2011, the country has the capacity to mobilize over 7.5 million hectares of cultivated l<strong>an</strong>d, of which 60% could be irrigated. By the mid-1970s, over 3 million hectares were being irrigated. Today, only <strong>an</strong> estimated 1.8 million hectares are irrigated. It is estimated that over 90% of the c<strong>an</strong>al systems in Afgh<strong>an</strong>ist<strong>an</strong> are farmer m<strong>an</strong>aged, with water being distributed by one or more community-based water service providers, or mirab 1 . As mentioned in the AHDR 2011, however, the perform<strong>an</strong>ce of community-based water m<strong>an</strong>agement institutions involved in distributing water for agriculture has deteriorated due to the decades of war in the country, with issues of equity in water sharing. Rehabilitating infrastructure, improving govern<strong>an</strong>ce <strong>an</strong>d m<strong>an</strong>agement, <strong>an</strong>d increasing efficiency of water use at the farm level are some of the areas that have been the focus of the government over the past years to address the issue. A comprehensive monitoring of perform<strong>an</strong>ce is however missing. 1.3. Vulnerability to droughts High dependence on the agricultural sector, at 37% of the country’s total GDP, combined with <strong>an</strong> under-developed water storage infrastructure (see section 2.2. below) makes Afgh<strong>an</strong>ist<strong>an</strong> one of the most vulnerable countries to droughts, which contributes heavily to food insecurity. <strong>The</strong> droughts of 1998-2002, 2008 <strong>an</strong>d 2011 were considered the most severe in Afgh<strong>an</strong>ist<strong>an</strong>’s recent climatic history. In 2008, <strong>an</strong> estimated 4.5 million people required food aid (USDA, 2008). <strong>The</strong> next section will consider whether resource availability is a critical constraint to addressing the challenges mentioned above. 2. <strong>Water</strong> Resources in Afgh<strong>an</strong>ist<strong>an</strong>: Large Availability but Multiple Constraints Although there are regions of Afgh<strong>an</strong>ist<strong>an</strong> that are physically water scarce, most people who lack secure access to water are deprived because of inadequate infrastructure <strong>an</strong>d poor m<strong>an</strong>agement rather th<strong>an</strong> insufficient resources (CPHD, 2011). Afgh<strong>an</strong>ist<strong>an</strong>’s <strong>an</strong>nual renewable surface water resources are estimated at 57 billion cubic metres, which is distributed along five river basins (Figure 2). With <strong>an</strong> estimated average water availability of 2,775 m 3 per capita per year, Afgh<strong>an</strong>ist<strong>an</strong>’s water availability is 60% above the 1,700 m 3 /s threshold 2 , the amount of water which is considered sufficient for a country to fulfill its needs for food production, energy, industries, domestic <strong>an</strong>d environmental uses. Nevertheless, there are a number of natural constraints which hamper the ability to fully harness this potential, which are discussed here. 1 According to AHDR 2011, the mirab is responsible for the following tasks: ensuring water distribution according to local water allocation norms; org<strong>an</strong>izing collective mainten<strong>an</strong>ce; <strong>an</strong>d, assisting in the prevention <strong>an</strong>d resolution of conflicts over water distribution <strong>an</strong>d mainten<strong>an</strong>ce. Traditionally, local elders in the shuras – village-based community org<strong>an</strong>izations – have usually played the main role in electing mirabs <strong>an</strong>d in conflict resolution. However, in recent decades, new actors, including local comm<strong>an</strong>ders, have started influencing the process in parallel with the shuras. <strong>Water</strong>-related line ministries <strong>an</strong>d other relev<strong>an</strong>t entities are present along the c<strong>an</strong>als, although their influence has diminished since the beginning of the war in the early 1980s. 2 According to the Falkenmark indicator, 1,700 cubic metres of water are required per capita per year to satisfy the water dem<strong>an</strong>d of a given population for domestic, food production, industrial, energy <strong>an</strong>d environmental uses. <strong>The</strong> indicator provides a measure of the extent to which the resource is available relative to the required dem<strong>an</strong>d. 112 <strong>The</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Water</strong> <strong>Crisis</strong>: <strong>Addressing</strong> <strong>an</strong> <strong>Urgent</strong> <strong>Security</strong> Issue
Figure 2. Map of Afgh<strong>an</strong>ist<strong>an</strong>’s five river basins (CPHD, 2011). 2.1. Uneven distribution of water resources <strong>The</strong> first constraint is that the resources are unevenly distributed within <strong>an</strong>d across the country’s five river basins (Figure 3). 8,000 7,000 6,000 5,000 4,000 3,000 2,000 1,000 0 <strong>Water</strong> availability per capita in the 5 river basins of Afgh<strong>an</strong>ist<strong>an</strong> (m 3 per capita per year) 2,889 1,777 Figure 3. <strong>Water</strong> availability in the five river basins of Afgh<strong>an</strong>ist<strong>an</strong> (CPHD, 2011). 7,412 <strong>Water</strong> stress threshold <strong>Water</strong> scarcity threshold Absolute water scarcity threshold Kabul Harirod-Murghab P<strong>an</strong>j-Amu Northern Helm<strong>an</strong>d Afgh<strong>an</strong>ist<strong>an</strong> 676 <strong>Water</strong> Govern<strong>an</strong>ce Reform in Afgh<strong>an</strong>ist<strong>an</strong>: Early Lessons for a <strong>Water</strong>-secure Future 1,581 2,775 Part 2 113
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The Global Water Crisis: Addressing
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About the InterAction Council Estab
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Acknowledgements
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Foreword
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The undeniable seriousness of the g
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Foreword xiii
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The Global Water Crisis: Framing th
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Ethical considerations also need to
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3. Support Ratification of the UN W
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1 Water and Global Security
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Introduction Since the serious stat
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Jury and Vaux project that the numb
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5. The Potential for Conflict and t
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References Cullen, H., 2010. The We
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Introduction Water is an integral p
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shortage Statewide Regional Local N
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summer months. To alleviate the con
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References Department of Energy, 20
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Introduction Water, economic and en
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Economic analyses of ecosystem good
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• Managing for sustainability. De
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Richter, B.D., M.M. Davis, C. Apse
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Introduction Water is an essential
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early post-Cold War period, from a
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2.4. Water, conflicts, and institut
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Renaud et al. (2011) proposed a pre
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Carius, A., D. Tänzler and A. Maas
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Turton, A.R., 2004. “The Evolutio
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Introduction In the West Asia and N
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2. Water in the WANA Region 2.1. De
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Following on this, during a persona
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Below are some suggestions for how
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plants through evapo-transpiration)
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WANA Forum, 2010b. Toward Supra-nat
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Introduction “The trouble with wa
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- Page 141 and 142: References Barlow, Maude, 2007. Blu
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