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Table.1. Water pollutants and human health impacts (adapted from Pangare et al., 2006). Pollutant Pathway into water Impacts Arsenic � Natural occurrence in groundwater Fluoride � Natural occurrence in groundwater � Artificial introduction to groundwater through mining Nitrate � Artificial introduction to surface water through use of fertilizers and industrial wastewaters � Nitrate-based fertilizers applied excessively leaches into groundwater Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) Heavy metals � Surface run-off contaminated with herbicide and pesticides � Herbicide and pesticide leaching into groundwater � Natural occurrence � Discharged as effluent from manufacturing, mining and thermal power plants Water-related diseases are caused by consumption or contact with water contaminated with pathogens such as bacteria, parasites or viruses. Contamination may occur at source, en route while passing through poorly laid and maintained pipelines, or at water storage facilities that have not been effectively secured. Source contamination occurs at unimproved open water sources, such as lakes and rivers. These open sources are used for multiple purposes, including in situ bathing and washing, which facilitates the transfer of germs from infected individuals to the water bodies. Poor water infrastructure allows pathogens from the surface or the surrounding substrata to enter the water supply; this is especially critical when sewer systems are similarly inadequate as sewage may mix with drinking water. Stored water that is left uncovered and stagnant provides vectors such as mosquitoes with breeding grounds, and encourages the proliferation of pathogens. Health risks related to poor water and sanitation facilities are termed ‘traditional risks’ (WHO, 2009), and are typically associated with poverty. These risks are commonly seen in developing countries, but permeate developed countries as well, particularly in marginalized communities such as those living in slums or in rural areas. The World Health Organization in 2009 estimated that in low-income countries, water-related diseases are the second leading cause for loss of healthy life, and the fourth leading cause of death (WHO, 2009). About half of all water-related diseases are linked with pathogens found in human excreta (Pangare et al., 2006). These diseases are categorized as diarrheal diseases, and are responsible for 2 million deaths each year. Other diseases related to water are those that are vector-borne, or water-washed (related to person-to-person contact) (see Table 2). 80 The Global Water Crisis: Addressing an Urgent Security Issue � Cancer of the bladder, lung and skin � Birth defects � Skin lesions � Gangrene � Respiratory ailments � Dental and skeletal fluorosis � Gastrointestinal disorders � Infertility � Kidney impairment � Methemoglobinemia in infants � Oral and gastrointestinal cancers � Vascular dementia � Absorptive and secretive functional disorders of the intestine � Neural tube defects � Acute poisoning causes skin and eye irritation, respiratory problems, systematic poisoning and death � Continuous exposure causes nervous disorders, anaemia, sterility, mental deterioration, birth defects, premature birth, neonatal deaths and cancer � Multiple health impacts including but not limited to organ damage and failure, impairments in human development, genetic disorders, cancer
Table 2. Water-related diseases (adapted from Lvovsky, 2001; Pangare et al., 2006; and Prüss-Üstün et al., 2008). Disease category Diarrheal diseases Vector-borne diseases Diseases Disease type Transmission Diarrhea, cholera, dysentery, typhoid, amoebiasis, giardiasis, rotavirus gastroenteritis Lymphatic filariasis, malaria Dengue, Japanese encephalitis, yellow fever Gastrointestinal infection Schistomiasis Parasitic infection Blindness Onchocerciasis Nematode infection Trachoma Bacterial infection Cutaneous diseases Dracunculiasis Nematode infection Scabies Parasitic infection Paralysis Poliomyelitis Viral infection of the central nervous system Faecal-oral route; drinking water contaminated with faecal matter Parasitic Borne by black flies and mosquitoes which breed infection in stagnant water Viral infection Borne by black flies and mosquitoes which breed in stagnant water Borne by aquatic snails Borne by black files Person-to-person contact; water deficits result in poor personal hygiene and increased risk of transmission Drinking water contaminated with nematodes Person-to-person contact; water deficits result in poor personal hygiene and increased risk of transmission Faecal-oral and oral-oral routes; drinking contaminated water Liver disease Hepatitis A and E Viral infection Faecal-oral route; drinking water contaminated with faecal matter 2. Implications for Social and Economic Development Water is required for human and domestic consumption and for productive purposes at different levels, from household to national. There are minimum standards of water quality required for different uses. However, increasing global water scarcity and deteriorating water quality as a result of pressures and demands and competition for water resources from different sectors often necessitates the use of water which may not meet the quality standards for particular uses. The problem is aggravated due to inadequate disposal of polluted or contaminated water in water bodies such as rivers, lakes and wetlands. In addition to increasing health risks for nearby populations from contact with these water bodies, the toxins that accumulate in these water bodies have a negative impact on the environment, destroying aquatic plant and animal life. Consumption of fish from these contaminated water bodies can also be harmful for humans and animals. Greater use of poor-quality water for consumption and production purposes increases health risks in the community. For example, over-extraction of groundwater for drinking, agriculture and industry has increased the incidence of fluoride and arsenic in these water sources. Many people are forced to drink fluoride-contaminated water due to the scarcity of safe fresh water. In India alone, more than 90 million people are at risk from fluoride-related health problems (Pangare et al., 2006) (see also Box 4 on Groundwater Resources in Bangladesh). Water and Health Security Part 2 81
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The Global Water Crisis: Addressing
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About the InterAction Council Estab
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Acknowledgements
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Foreword
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The undeniable seriousness of the g
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Foreword xiii
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The Global Water Crisis: Framing th
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Ethical considerations also need to
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3. Support Ratification of the UN W
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1 Water and Global Security
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Introduction Since the serious stat
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Jury and Vaux project that the numb
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5. The Potential for Conflict and t
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References Cullen, H., 2010. The We
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Introduction Water is an integral p
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shortage Statewide Regional Local N
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summer months. To alleviate the con
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References Department of Energy, 20
Page 41 and 42:
Introduction Water, economic and en
Page 43 and 44: Economic analyses of ecosystem good
Page 45 and 46: • Managing for sustainability. De
Page 47 and 48: Richter, B.D., M.M. Davis, C. Apse
Page 49 and 50: Introduction Water is an essential
Page 51 and 52: early post-Cold War period, from a
Page 53 and 54: 2.4. Water, conflicts, and institut
Page 55 and 56: Renaud et al. (2011) proposed a pre
Page 57 and 58: Carius, A., D. Tänzler and A. Maas
Page 59 and 60: Turton, A.R., 2004. “The Evolutio
Page 61 and 62: Introduction In the West Asia and N
Page 63 and 64: 2. Water in the WANA Region 2.1. De
Page 65 and 66: Following on this, during a persona
Page 67 and 68: Below are some suggestions for how
Page 69 and 70: plants through evapo-transpiration)
Page 71 and 72: WANA Forum, 2010b. Toward Supra-nat
Page 73 and 74: Introduction “The trouble with wa
Page 75 and 76: • Upgrading current water infrast
Page 77 and 78: 60,000 ventilation improved pit lat
Page 79 and 80: 5. The Bottom Line It is widely ack
Page 81: The Blue Economy: Risks and Opportu
Page 84 and 85: 2.1 A Human Development Approach to
Page 86 and 87: apparatus assists nation-states in
Page 88 and 89: By ensuring that the international
Page 90 and 91: 2.2 Water and Health Security Ganes
Page 92 and 93: 1.1. Human-induced Pollutants Domes
Page 96 and 97: In many urban and semi-urban areas,
Page 98 and 99: 2.3 Water, Sanitation, Hygiene and
Page 100 and 101: 1. The Impacts of Poor Water, Sanit
Page 102 and 103: 77 64 2015 MDG target Coverage (%)
Page 104 and 105: 3. The Neglect of the WASH Sector a
Page 106 and 107: References Checkley, W., G. Buckley
Page 108 and 109: 2.4 Water, Food and the Development
Page 110 and 111: 2. Keeping Pace with Change Since t
Page 112 and 113: one and has yet to attain widesprea
Page 114 and 115: 2.5 Investing in Women’s Particip
Page 116 and 117: of agriculture resulting mainly fro
Page 118 and 119: their substantial contribution is p
Page 120 and 121: Although cultural constraints still
Page 122 and 123: UNEP, 2009. Water Security and Ecos
Page 124 and 125: 2.6 Water Governance Reform in Afgh
Page 126 and 127: 1.2. The Extreme risk of food secur
Page 128 and 129: Furthermore, within each basin, lan
Page 130 and 131: 3.2. Early doubts vis-à-vis progre
Page 132 and 133: transboundary water management conc
Page 135 and 136: 3 Will the Right to Water Alleviate
Page 137 and 138: Introduction A growing number of ar
Page 139 and 140: 2. Ethical Perspectives on State Ob
Page 141 and 142: References Barlow, Maude, 2007. Blu
Page 143 and 144: Introduction It is widely recognize
Page 145 and 146:
Later in 2010, the UN Human Rights
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3.2. Legislative Recognition Dozens
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Mandela, M., 2002. No Water, No Fut
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Introduction South Africans have a
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water per person per day. The appli
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References Bluemel, E. B., 2004.
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Introduction Water conflicts are nu
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4. Water Policies and Their Impact
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y its interconnection to encompass
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Access to Water and Conflict: An In
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Response from the InterAction Counc
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As former U.S. President Mr. Bill C
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The InterAction Council Québec Dec
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List of Participants
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List of Participants: 29 th Annual
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