Redesigning Animal Agriculture

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of diffuse nutrient loading on waters. Major causes for concern arise from the following production systems in the UK: ● Dairy and beef cattle production in lowland Wales and western England; ● Sheep production in sensitive upland areas of Wales and northern England; ● Pig production on intensive outdoor pig-lots in lowland permeable areas; ● Cattle and sheep production through strip grazing in lowland permeable catchments; ● The disposal of poultry litter from intensive rearing units in eastern England. The impact of these trends on nutrient export to waters is spatially variable across England and Wales. This is illustrated in Fig. 11.6, where the spatial variations in the rates of N and P export per hectare of agricultural land are shown for 1931 and 1991 (after Johnes et al., 2007). The highest rates of both N and P export from agriculture are occurring in the lowland intensive dairying regions, resulting from the intensity of livestock production in these areas. The lowest rates of N and P export occur in the upland regions and also in flatter arable lands of East Anglia. The low rates of export in the upland regions result from relatively low intensity agricultural production in the national context. The low rates of export in East Anglia result from the low intrinsic vulnerability of this flat and dry landscape to water-borne nutrient transport, again in the UK context, despite the intensive agricultural production practised in this region, both in the present day and also in the baseline year. These trends are interesting from the perspective of illustrating national patterns of nutrient flux from agriculture. However, this does not mean that the waters in the uplands and East Anglia are of better quality or ecological status than waters in the remainder of England and Wales. What is of greater ecological significance is not the absolute rate of nutrient flux and the resulting N and P concentrations instream, but the degree of deviation (pollution) that is potentially experienced by the biota living in the water body. Although water bodies in upland regions have Ecological Restoration Targets 197 typically low nutrient concentrations they are nevertheless under considerable pressure from diffuse agricultural sources, with the greatest rates of increase in nutrient loading in the UK predicted for the uplands of Wales, Cumbria and south-west England. The rivers in eastern England, by contrast, whilst having typically moderate to high nutrient concentrations, have experienced, in many instances, a decrease or only a modest increase in nutrient loading over the period 1931–1991, with marked spatial heterogeneity evident in the trends within each region. In order to comply with the definition of ‘Good Ecological Status’ under the Water Framework Directive, it is necessary to develop management strategies which will generate nutrient concentrations capable of sustaining a healthy ecology in terms of both structure and function in these impacted waters, regardless of absolute nutrient concentration per se. The challenge is to determine which management strategies are most appropriate in each region, given the different starting points and pressures for each water body, and to assess whether broad regional strategies can deliver an appropriate degree of nutrient export control for individual water bodies within each region. Identifying the Nature and Scale of Appropriate Management of Diffuse Pollution Under the WFD There are a wide range of options available for reduction of nutrient export from agricultural sources, including modifications to the rates and timing of fertilizer applications to crops and grass, genetic modifications to crop varieties to improve nutrient uptake efficiency, and for animal agriculture a wider range including: ● Manipulation of digestive physiology through animal selection and genomics; ● Modification of the nutrient content and availability in animal feeds; ● Modification of the timing, method and rate of manure application to crops and grass;
198 P.J. Johnes (a) Nitrogen (b) Phosphorus 1931 155% increase kg/ha/yr 0−2 2−4 4−8 8−16 16−32 32−64 64−128 >128 1991 Average (kg/ha/yr): 11.23 Average (kg/ha/yr): 28.7 1931 102% increase kg/ha/yr 0−0.1 0.1−0.2 0.2−0.4 0.4−0.8 0.8−1.6 1.6−3.2 3.2−6.4 6.4−12.8 1991 Average (kg/ha/yr): 0.615 Average (kg/ha/yr): 1.24 Fig. 11.6. Nutrient export from land to water in England and Wales, 1931–1991 (after Johnes et al., 2007).
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Redesigning Animal Agriculture The
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Redesigning Animal Agriculture The
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Contents Contributors vii Acknowled
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Contributors Margaret Alston, Direc
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Acknowledgements “The editors gra
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Introduction to Redesigning Animal
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Introduction xiii factors). In rede
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1 Redesigning Animal Agriculture: a
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ing to the confusions and complexit
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such as environmental integrity alo
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The Systems Idea in Agriculture Sys
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These are all matters that are enti
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was intended to capture this vital
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wants and needs to be comprehensive
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people who can journey together tow
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A Systemic Perspective 17 Gunderson
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and telecommunications infrastructu
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y a move from a more intensive indu
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from 10 to 40% higher than urban Au
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in rural areas - environmental degr
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young people are leaving farms and
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Maintaining Vibrant Rural Communiti
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views in philosophical animal ethic
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case of virtues) there are specific
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animal ethics that is dominated by
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involves a detailed analysis of the
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to the idea that it is not wrong af
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not show sufficient respect to anim
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that ethical norms and ethical voca
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Ethics of Livestock Science 45 Diam
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plasticity of the genome and the po
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a highly predictable and beneficial
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immune response genes in both speci
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annotate these regions. The Herefor
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to their production source. This ca
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cially viable genetic tests. One re
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additive effects of the contributin
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understanding the relationship betw
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The Impact of Genomics 63 Mattick,
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5 Precision Animal Breeding Kishore
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effects (e.g. contemporary groups,
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the mean performance of the parenta
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or even shipped out overseas as liv
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tions underlying the desirable phen
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3. Markers 0.25 cM apart - through
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Infinitesimal Model y = Xb + Z1u +
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Precision Animal Breeding 79 Jansen
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6 Germ Cell Transplantation - a Nov
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testicular environment could be ove
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Brinster et al., 2003). Treatment o
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ingly sought after to produce bioph
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Acknowledgements Work from the auth
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Germ Cell Transplantation 91 epigen
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Germ Cell Transplantation 93 von Sc
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own maternal chromosomes. This reco
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eprogramming following NT, leading
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species (Schnieke et al., 1997) and
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lentivectors and RNA interference (
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under development as a biopharmaceu
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Rather than attempting to manipulat
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strated in transgenic mice over-exp
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Regulatory Issues The regulatory re
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health, fitness and behaviour of th
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goals. More specifically, it remain
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Cloning and Transgenesis 115 Gama,
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Cloning and Transgenesis 117 McCrea
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Cloning and Transgenesis 119 Stinna
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8 Transforming Livestock with Trans
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have been adapted to allow more pre
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commercial lines is apparently not
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protection of the genome against mo
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(Hammond et al., 2000). Binding of
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There are a number of ways to produ
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ules that determine siRNA activity
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known influenza A virus H subtypes
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will need to be balanced against th
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Transforming Livestock with Transge
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Introduction A key difficulty faced
Page 162 and 163: dation to probabilistic (e.g. a giv
Page 164 and 165: Similarly, the probability that a d
Page 166 and 167: One approach to the development of
Page 168 and 169: 1 1 nb − ( m + mI ) m XS = ( m +
Page 170 and 171: 1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 value of the st
Page 172 and 173: that shown in (9.9). In the sequel
Page 174 and 175: Metropolis-Hastings algorithm descr
Page 176 and 177: 30 20 10 logging system composed of
Page 178 and 179: 0.09 0.08 0.07 0.06 0.05 0.04 0e+00
Page 180 and 181: confronting models with data in thi
Page 182 and 183: This is especially surprising since
Page 184 and 185: Stochastic Process-based Modelling
Page 186 and 187: 10 Reef Safe Beef: Environmentally
Page 188 and 189: and most beef is produced under ext
Page 190 and 191: Mean NDVI Burdekin Mean NDVI Fitzro
Page 192 and 193: High biomass/cover Also, the increa
Page 194 and 195: Good or ‘A’ condition has the f
Page 196 and 197: Value ($) Grazier disinclination of
Page 198 and 199: Reef Safe Beef 183 Ludwig, J.A., Wi
Page 200 and 201: 11 Meeting Ecological Restoration T
Page 202 and 203: evidence of only slight degradation
Page 204 and 205: Throughout the UK, there are spatia
Page 206 and 207: Quarterly flow weighted mean nitrat
Page 208 and 209: suggest that the majority of inland
Page 210 and 211: Table 11.3. Current problems in dif
Page 214 and 215: ● Introducing full nutrient budge
Page 216 and 217: following scenario 1, and scenario
Page 218 and 219: Ecological Restoration Targets 203
Page 220 and 221: This chapter draws on two examples
Page 222 and 223: (Firbank, 2005; Potter and Tilzey,
Page 224 and 225: growth in the export market has com
Page 226 and 227: the use of larger amounts of agroch
Page 228 and 229: need to establish partnerships with
Page 230 and 231: Social, Environmental and Economic
Page 232 and 233: adaptation to environment genetic b
Page 234 and 235: sequencing of 10, 000 non-redundant
Page 236 and 237: transfer of nutrients and micro-org
Page 238 and 239: genotypic value, and EBV 67-68 germ
Page 240 and 241: livestock transgenics for agricultu
Page 242 and 243: quantitative genetics use 66-69 sys
Page 244 and 245: speciesism 35 sperm-mediated gene t
Page 246: water quality EU Water Framework Di
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