April 2012 Volume 15 Number 2 - Educational Technology & Society

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contribution) was created by the order of the discussion conditions. We recommend continued testing of the amount of actual involvement in sensitive versus non-sensitive topics in future studies. While expressing the readiness to discuss a sensitive topic, the participants preferred a text chat over a voice chat. It seems that participants felt more comfortable discussing sensitive topics via a "lean" communication medium. The analysis of actual behavior showed that the amount of participation through text chat was smaller compared to other communication modes; this may reinforce emotional processing and reflection on the topic. Thus, for discussing sensitive topics in real-time in various interpersonal environments, employment of lean communication modes, such as text chat, is recommended. However, across discussion subjects, smaller amount of actual participation was revealed through text chat in comparison with spoken FtF and audio chat discussions. According to Media Naturalness Theory, the ability to transmit human voice is critical for determining the degree of medium naturalness (Kock, 2009; Kock et al., 2008). Thus, voice chat has a different effect on interpersonal interactions than text chat because of the different degrees of anonymity (visual anonymity versus both visual and auditory anonymity), therefore resulting in higher levels of participation. Thus, audio chat seems to be a more appropriate medium than text chat for encouraging involvement in synchronous communication if the subject of discussion cannot be manipulated. Lower degree of participation can be also explained by the effect of the well-known phenomenon of information overload (Hiltz & Turoff, 1985), shown to occur in text chat (Jones, Moldovan, Raban, & Butler, 2008). According to these researchers, information overload takes place because of transmitting too many messages and/or the lack of structure and coherence, which leads to diminished participant activity. Despite the advantages of chat explored in this study, textual group discussions are less structured compared to spoken ones. In contrast to clear turn-taking for speaking in FtF and audio chat communication modes, in text chats participants express themselves (i.e., write messages) simultaneously. Chatters therefore needed higher concentration in order to express their opinions and to follow parallel arguments by others, which frequently lead to diminished amounts of participation. However, the quality of contribution found in text chat discussions in the current study was similar to the spoken FtF and audio chat communication modes. Thus, text chat can be seen as an efficient form of real-time communication, in which the quality of the contribution was similar to spoken discussions obtained by shorter messages (i.e., fewer words). As hypothesized, personality affected the readiness to partake in discussions: extroverts expressed greater readiness to participate in discussions compared to introverts. Also, this personality trait interacted with the type of medium in affecting the readiness to participate in discussions: introverts expressed greater readiness to partake in discussions via text chat compared to extroverts (who preferred more revealing communication media). Similar results revealed in analyzing the influence of extroversion on participants’ actual behavior. As expected, extroverts participated in discussions significantly more actively than introverts. This finding is consistent with previous studies that reported extroverts' higher involvement in interpersonal interactions. In the current study, participation of introverts in FtF communication was very limited; a sensitive discussion topic, however, augmented the rate of participation. Interestingly, the interaction effect found between extroversion and type of media revealed that the level of participation of extroverts and introverts was similar in text chat but differed in the more natural communication modes. It seems that in synchronous communication, only text chat (i.e., low in communication richness) empowers introverts by releasing inhibitions of their anxiety of interpersonal interactions ("the poor get richer" hypothesis). However, as complicated interactions of introversion-extroversion with online communication may exist (Valkenburg & Peter, 2007), this subject should be examined more closely in future research. Participant extroversion affected not only the amount of participation but also the quality of the discussions. The quality of extroverts’ contribution to discussions, as evaluated by raters, was higher compared to the contribution of introverts. This finding has important implications for the evaluation of real-time group discussions in learning and work environments. That is, introvert learners or employees may have good ideas, but feel uncomfortable expressing them in group meetings. In this case follow-up asynchronous reflections through email, blog, or forum formats are recommended. Our results showed gaps between the participant anticipated and actual behavior. In contrast to our hypothesis, there were no significant correlations between the readiness to partake in discussions as reported by participants in Study 1 and the amount of their actual participation in discussions as assessed in Study 2. Also, despite the clear preference for non-sensitive over sensitive discussion topics declared by participants before the experiment (Study 1), their 21
actual participation discussing sensitive topics was almost twice as high as discussing non-sensitive topic (Study 2). In addition, participants declared they would prefer taking part in discussions via FtF over online communication modes (Study 1); however, almost the same amount of participation was found in actual FtF and audio chat discussions (Study 2). Similarly, in expressing preferences for online communication, participants reported greater readiness to interact through text chat compared to audio communication (Study 1). However, their actual spoken participation in audio chat was almost twice as much as text chat participation (Study 2). These findings question the possibility of studying actual participant behavior by self-reported anticipations of future selections and decisions. Regarding the equalization effect, consistent with our hypothesis, more equal interpersonal and gender-related participation was found in text chat compared to FtF and to audio communication modes. However, equality of participation in voice chat was similar to equality of participation in FtF discussions. It seems that human speech transmits important status- and gender-related cues and therefore disables the occurrence of equalization effect in spoken online interactions. Thus, in real-time communication the use of text chat might be recommended in order to empower women, minorities, and other marginalized people. Constant changes of digital technologies challenge people with the need to master technological and social competences. Digital literacy includes, among other factors, the ability to learn, work, collaborate with others, and solve problems effectively in online learning and work environments, as well as handling interpersonal and group interactions in technology-mediated social involvement environments. The current study contributes to this area in exploring some effects of digital technologies, in interaction with participant personality, on online behavior in the context of digital literacy. Following our research, it seems to be evident that the impact of personality in interaction with media characteristics and communication content affect both participants’ readiness as well as actual accomplishments in different modes of communication. By conducting this research in the natural Internet environment it has improved the ecological validity of the study and enlarged the possibility for generalization of its findings. While this study has implications concerning the use of synchronous online environments and differentiates the impact of text chat from voice chat, further investigative studies are needed to examine the growing use and possibilities of synchronous communication modes. References Amichai-Hamburger, Y. (2007). Personality, individual differences and Internet use. In A. Joinson, K. Y. A. McKenna, T. Postmes & U. D. Reips (Eds.), Oxford handbook of Internet psychology (pp. 187-204). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. Amichai-Hamburger, Y., & Barak, A. (2009). Internet and well-being. In Y. Amichai-Hamburger (Ed.), <strong>Technology</strong> and psychological well-being (pp. 34-76). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Amichai-Hamburger, Y., & Ben-Artzi, E. (2000). The relationship between extraversion, neuroticism, and the internet. Computer and Human Behavior, 16(4), 441-449. Amichai-Hamburger, Y., Wainapel, G., & Fox, S. (2002). “On the Internet no one knows I’m an introvert”: Extroversion, neuroticism, and Internet interaction. CyberPsychology & Behavior, 5(2), 125-128. Anolli, L., Villani, D., & Riva, G. (2005). Personality of people using chat: An on-line research. CyberPsychology & Behavior, 8(1), 89-95. Barak, A. (2007). Phantom emotions: Psychological determinants of emotional experiences on the Internet. In A. Joinson, K. Y. A. McKenna, T. Postmes & U. D. Reips (Eds.), Oxford handbook of Internet psychology (pp. 303-329). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. Barak, A., Boniel-Nissim, M., & Suler, J. (2008). Fostering empowerment in online support groups. Computers in Human Behavior, 24(5), 1867-1883. Barak, A., & Suler, J. (2008). Reflections on the psychology and social science of cyberspace. In A. Barak (Ed.), Psychological aspects of cyberspace: Theory, research, applications (pp. 1-12). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Blau, I., & Caspi, A. (2007). Participation in and efficiency of distance learning using Skype. In M. Ronen (Ed), Online Academic Learning (pp.75-77). Holon, Israel: Holon Institute of <strong>Technology</strong>. Blau, I., & Caspi, A. (2008). Do media richness and visual anonymity influence learning? A comparative study using Skype. In Y. Eshet, A. Caspi & N. Geri (Eds.), Learning in the Technological Era (pp. 18-25). Ra'anana, Israel: The Open University of Israel. 22
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Page 3 and 4: Supporting Organizations Centre for
Page 5 and 6: Contextualizing a MALL: Practice De
Page 7 and 8: Kop, R. (2012). The Unexpected Conn
Page 9 and 10: Human mediation and information flo
Page 11 and 12: elevant information based on some k
Page 13 and 14: of learners. A search facilitated t
Page 15 and 16: information as human mediation mean
Page 17 and 18: Blau, I., & Barak, A. (2012). How D
Page 19 and 20: examined whether the readiness to p
Page 21 and 22: Table 5 presents the ANOVA for the
Page 23 and 24: However, in discussing a non-sensit
Page 25: deviations showed smaller variance,
Page 29 and 30: Mesch, G., & Elgali, Z. (2009). Soc
Page 31 and 32: Although prior research on overall
Page 33 and 34: with a score of 39 and below as “
Page 35 and 36: Table 2 demonstrates mean scores an
Page 37 and 38: Discussion Although the recent Inte
Page 39 and 40: Furthermore, the most preferred pla
Page 41 and 42: MEB. (2009). Internete erisim proje
Page 43 and 44: Learning Management Systems (LMS) b
Page 45 and 46: practice and repetition with feedba
Page 47 and 48: Online peer assessment Peer assessm
Page 49 and 50: At an international conference on m
Page 51 and 52: � Ability to produce rich assessm
Page 53 and 54: Meishar-Tal, H., & Tal-Elhasid, E.
Page 55 and 56: Tsai, S. C. (2012). Integration of
Page 57 and 58: order to decrease text complexity a
Page 59 and 60: matter how the learners’ aptitude
Page 61 and 62: If compared by programs, WP student
Page 63 and 64: mean F2F 4.64 4.52 4.35 4.44 *: p
Page 65 and 66: een analyzed and were compared with
Page 67 and 68: Chen, G.-D., Lee, J.-H., Wang, C.-Y
Page 69 and 70: and diverse cognitional and emotion
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Page 73 and 74: Materials and procedure Each studen
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Mayer, R. E., Sobko, K., & Mautone,
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that an item is answered correctly
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Table 1. Relative concepts frequenc
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The Account Management Module provi
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Experiment 1 and results Figure 7.
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Utilization of Test Item 36 33 30 2
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Utilization of Test Item 36 33 30 2
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0.065 0.877 (17.56) 0.938 (22.55) 0
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Hwang, G.J., Hsiao, C.L., & Tseng,
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the diverse needs of modern industr
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Figure 1. The framework of interdis
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Research Design Figure 3. Recommend
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friendly. 8. I feel the layout and
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satisfaction, and system acceptance
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Ozok, A. A., Fan, Q., & Norcio, A.
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than students in a conventional cla
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shown in Figure 2 to include the st
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(1996) Pleasure-Arousal-Dominance (
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Based on this connection, we consid
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Final dominance measurements were p
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student mood and thereby allow comp
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Sessink, O., Beeftink, H., Tramper,
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The rationale behind the video form
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usefulness of the movies and their
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case of the first two questions and
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this paper in order to evaluate the
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The survey questions Appendix A In
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E-training in organizations E-train
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efficacy regarding online training,
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Method Sample and procedure Figure
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0.874 which exceeded the recommende
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Even though the result does not con
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Brown, M., & Cudeck, R. (1993). Alt
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Wen, Y., Looi, C.-K., & Chen, W. (2
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when they are designing and impleme
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paper focuses on the first three st
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their self-esteem to be partners in
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Democratizing knowledge and symmetr
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1) Reading the article: At the star
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Effects of RCKI principle-based ped
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References Alexander, C. (1979). Th
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Valsamidis, S., Kontogiannis, S., K
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The Analog system (Yan et al., 1996
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First, the number of the sessions a
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BioLayout uses a modified version o
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As shown in figure 3, all metrics c
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Figure 7. The detailed results for
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Enright, A. J., van Dongen, S., Ouz
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Chu, S. K. W., Kwan, A. C. M., & Wa
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teachers, as well as collaboration
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from the students’ ratings appear
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Table 5 summarizes the students’
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eading blogs (i.e., reminders, easy
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Luehmann, A. L. (2008). Using blogg
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Uzunboylu et al. (2009) examined th
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System implementation Overview of M
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Methods Before the experiment, a mo
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too simple, incomplete, or they eve
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Comparisons of UMLS Questionnaire i
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already described may play an impor
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Parker, D., Manstead, A. S. R., Str
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Avci, U., & Askar, P. (2012). The C
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Literature review The related varia
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collected through Personal Informat
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Self-efficacy 92 5 21 13.37 3.726 W
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In this problem, intention was take
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References Ajjan, H., & Hartshorne,
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Tan, T.-H., Lin, M.-S., Chu, Y.-L.,
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Students perused the course materia
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problem. All articles were then sen
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tests, electronic tests are more li
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Students 10 and 11: My classmate Ed
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collection was also approved by all
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Ubiquitous Revision Seamless Collab
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Tai, Y. (2012). Contextualizing a M
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tasks were developed from task type
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experiences in this phase. Moreover
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test is administered again right af
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The collected data were analyzed wi
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Gorp, K. V., & Bogaert, N. (2006).
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4PL IRT model According to the numb
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examinee’s ability more accuratel
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would be more accurate if items j+1
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C�I or Change I�I) would be 0.2
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improved by rearrangement procedure
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Table 6. Repeated Measures ANOVA of
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Leppisaari, I., & Lee, O. (2012). M
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Selection of the virtual tool The t
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Environmental themes emerged strong
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Visualization of text (visual langu
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environments where visual technolog
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- Logging in to learning environmen
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McNaught, C., Lam, P. & Lam, S.L. (
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on-site to finally achieve a meanin
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Table 1. Digital game designers and
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worldviews are socio-cultural-histo
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Phase Methods Visitor data collecti
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operate the game without the help o
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Visitors (end users) must be heard.
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Islas Sedano, C., Pawlowski, J., Su
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part of something larger than the s
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Previous studies have developed rel
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Technology Acceptance. The 10 items
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Table 4. Model Fit Indices Model χ
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In the final path model of set 1, t
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Discussion Differing from prior stu
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Haythornthwaite, C., Kazmer, M. M.,
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Ge, Z.-G. (2012). Cyber Asynchronou
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college of a university situated in
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Table 3 shows us the following info
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Appendix B shows Class 1’s respon
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increase one’s ability to process
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Appendix A Responses concerning syn
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Shih, S.-C., Kuo, B.-C., & Liu, Y.-
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Adaptive U-learning Math Path Syste
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Figure 4. Online tutorial courses o
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Participants and Experimental Proce
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the influence of Test1 scores, an e
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Hall, T., & Bannon, L. (2006). Desi
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(Hofer & Pintrich, 1997; Liu, Lin &
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� Through online peer assessment,
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elativism.” High Internet self-ef
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Peng, H., Tsai, C.-C., & Wu, Y.-T.
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Since game-based learning has been
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The second reason is about the sust
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Methods Figure 5. Quest NPCs provid
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These differences indicated that pa
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quests further involves students’
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Chang, I.-H. (2012). The Effect of
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(1) Vision, planning and management
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Based on an examination of the lite
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Table 2. Analysis of reliability an
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λ10 - 0.69 0.83 ε5 14.50 * - 0.32
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Bailey, G. D. (1997). What technolo
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Stegall, P. (1998). The principal:
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instruction has studied the student
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espond and the estimation of possib
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Research question For the purpose o
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READI reliability To verify the con
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Physical -1.43333(*) .44699 .029 -2
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The results of this study suggest t
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Hsu, Y.-C., Ho, H. N. J., Tsai, C.-
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domains. Five research questions we
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Research sample groups (4) Faculty
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13. Policies, Social Culture Impact
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Non-Specified Others Engineering &
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(AR = -2.1) (n = 7) 2. Non-specifie
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(n): Total number of articles Resea
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Compared to the publications in 200
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Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPAC
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