Maria Knobelsdorf, University of Dortmund, Germany - Didaktik der ...

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site credibility determinations. This finding makes sense intuitively, as it underscores the difficulties inherent in information credibility determinations. In other research, credibility determinations were affected by literacy levels and socioeconomic status (SES) [5]. For example, with respect to health care posted on Web sites, HIV positive patients with lower educational levels and literacy skills were less critical of fraudulent claims regarding purported “cures” for AIDS than were their more educated counterparts from higher SES levels. Furthermore, Fogg, Soohoo, Danielson, Marable, Stanford and Taber [6] found that members of the general public could describe adequate bases upon which to make credibility determinations. However, when faced with actual Web sites, they abandoned these criteria in favor of determinations based on Web site appearance (or “design look”). Anecdotally, the author has found that while teaching in a Pacific Island US territory in June, 2012, university level students appeared to be less aware of Web site credibility issues in citing sources than were their US counterparts. It should be noted that these students are from a developing part of the Pacific and the majority would fit US definitions of living below the poverty level. Thus, many do not have computers at home or regular easily obtainable access to the Internet. Additionally, the university-level courses in which they were enrolled were only for several weeks, not allowing extensive work with resources or time to make effective credibility determinations. These examples underscore the ongoing need for critical Web credibility evaluation instruction in educational contexts, at all levels, or wherever and whenever computers are introduced into instruction. While it is clearly possible to teach Web and information evaluation without reference to a theoretical basis underlying instruction, I propose that it may be valuable to develop instruction that is consistent with frameworks known to be associated with the growth of critical learning skills. Because determinations about information and credibility implicitly involve epistemological considerations, I draw briefly on research that investigates epistemological beliefs regarding information on the Internet. Secondly, since science and scientific learning is an area where students must counter their initial conceptions or preconceptions in order to learn effectively, and because science-related Web sites are replete with misinformation, I discuss conceptual change research and how it might be drawn on analogically to facilitate the development of aspects of an instructional model for effective instruction in credibility evaluation. III. EPISTEMOLOGICAL BELIEFS AND THE INTERNET People implicitly make epistemological determinations or exercise epistemological beliefs in selecting information from the Web; reading, watching or listening to it; and finally in 64 citing it or using that information to make decisions or to influence their thinking in some way. Braten, Stromso, and Samuelstuen [7] conducted a relevant study in this area and adopted the definition of personal epistemology originally proposed by Hofer as, “how knowing occurs, what counts as knowledge and where it resides, and how knowledge is constructed and evaluated” (p. 1). Such a definition provides a useful basis for instruction, especially in different content areas. Braten et al. [7] carried out research investigating Norwegian university students’ epistemological beliefs around information on the Internet, using dimensions of epistemological beliefs proposed by Hofer and Pintrich [8]. Results indicated that two dimensions of epistemological beliefs were confirmed via factor analyses. As Braten et al. explained, “The first dimension, general Internet epistemology, ranged from the integrated view that the Internet is an essential source of true, specific facts to doubt about the Internet as a good source of true factual knowledge. The other dimension, justification for knowing, ranged from the view that Internet-based knowledge claims can be accepted without critical evaluation to the view that knowledge claims encountered on the Internet should be checked against other sources, reason, and prior knowledge” (p. 141). Clearly, effective instruction for credibility determinations should ideally include an introduction to epistemological considerations that can be general or content specific. Considerations such as those raised by Hofer in the definition above can guide the discussion, and inspire questions such as: What is knowledge? Who creates it? Who determines whether it is accepted in a field? What are the characteristics of credible knowledge? How does one personally determine whether knowledge expressed on the Web is credible? IV. CONCEPTUAL CHANGE RESEARCH A classic means of countering science misconceptions was summarized by Chinn and Brewer [9]. Their instructional model consisted of the following points: 1) “Consider a physical scenario whose outcome is not known” (p. 38). 2) “Predict the outcome” (p. 38). 3) “Construct competing theoretical explanations to support the predictions” (p. 38). 4) “Observe the outcome (anomalous data)” (p. 38). 5) “Modify competing theoretical explanations, if necessary” (p. 38) 6) “Evaluate competing explanations” (p. 38) 7) “Reiterate the preceding steps with different data.” (p. 38) Chinn and Brewer [9] described various factors that can influence the likelihood of conceptual change, including how anomalous data is handled – whether it is accepted, ignored,
einterpreted, or excluded, for example. They explained that individuals’ background knowledge, competing theories, characteristics of the anomalous data, and strategies used also affect the likelihood of conceptual change. Chinn and Brewer [9] argued that only by considering one’s preconceptions in light of anomalous data deeply, (often prompted by explaining one’s thoughts to others) can true conceptual change occur. They also convincingly explain that, “In order to learn epistemological commitments appropriate to evaluating evidence and theories, students may need to participate in a community that regularly debates alternative theories discusses responses to anomalous data, and evaluates evidence and theories. During this process of enculturation, students are like apprentices learning the craft of scientific reasoning and teachers can use strategies of modeling (by thinking out loud in front of students), coaching, providing scaffolding and gradually withdrawing it, and reflecting upon the cognitive strategies used (A. Collins, Brown & Newman, 1989)” (p. 33). Pintrich, Marx and Boyle [10] also addressed the conceptual change research, emphasizing that countering preconceptions at the logical, cognitive level may leave out important non-rational, motivational and affective elements of the determinations. These elements include motivational aspects of conceptual change, including goals, interests, values, and self-efficacy beliefs. They called for further research in this area. Clearly, affective and motivational aspects also play major roles in people’s credibility determinations, as the work of Fogg et al. [6], mentioned earlier, illustrates. To what specific extent and how remain potentially fruitful questions for further research in Web site credibility determinations as well. Thus, if we borrow from conceptual change research in science learning, we need to consider students’ goals in credibility determinations and possible motives (or nonmotives). Further, we need to consider whether there is an analogous event that can trigger conceptual change in much the same way conceptual change is trigger by anomalous events or information that does not fit with preconceptions. Within context of the conceptual change research, perhaps an analogous triggering event could be confrontation of Webbased information on a Web site that has a very credible appearance. Exercises with Web sites from different content areas and with different levels of information quality should facilitate learning. V. GENERAL INSTRUCTIONAL RECOMMENDATIONS Based upon this summary of research on Web credibility, and syntheses of suggestions that can be drawn from the research in epistemological beliefs related to the Internet, and conceptual change in science, the following suggestions are proposed for inclusion in effective Web information credibility instruction: 65 • Consideration of content specific epistemological approaches and beliefs. Discussion of the questions such as the following can be profitable: What is knowledge? Who evaluates it and determines whether it is accepted? • Discussion of specific aspects of Web site credibility, including sources, possible vested interests of Web site authors, corroboration of information with other sources • Teachers should model and think aloud as they evaluate the credibility of actual Web sites of varying degrees of credibility [10,11] • Students should work collaboratively to evaluate actual sites of varying credibility, and be encouraged to develop own strategies. • Students should be encouraged to articulate own explanations for their determinations to others. • Self-regulation should be central. Thus, if we consider Web site credibility determinations to involve to some extent a process of conceptual change, students should be encouraged to address the following questions when considering a Web site as an information source: Firstly, what is my initial conception or credibility determination regarding this Web site? Secondly, why? What characteristics caused me to make this determination – Web site appearance, author’s title, educational or company affiliation? Lastly, when comparing my initial conception to criteria I have learned, do I still consider this information/this Web site to be credible? Why or why not? • Teachers should provide opportunities for continued discussions of successes or failures and suggestions for improving credibility determinations. Simple questions such as the following can elicit this information: What’s working well? What isn’t? What suggestions do you have for improvement? VI. CONCLUSION This paper has summarized a line of research investigating students’ Web site credibility determinations. It has argued for the need for critical Web credibility instruction at all levels and has summarized research in epistemological beliefs about information from the Internet, and conceptual change in science learning. By drawing on these perspectives, instructional recommendations have been synthesized. These recommendations provide a foundation for further development in instruction and research that addresses the need for critical information credibility determinations when using Web-based information. REFERENCES [1] E.B. Klemm and M. Iding, Do scientists amd teachers agree on the credibility of media information sources, International Journal of Instructional Media, vol. 28, 2001, pp. 83-91.
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