motivated to learn something unless the immediate benefits are clear. Hence, CS teachers might experience even greater difficulties in introducing the pr<strong>of</strong>essional CS culture as legitimate, let alone the desired one. Simple introductory problems previously used to teach programming with gradual levels <strong>of</strong> difficulty, such as a program that prints "hello world" on the screen, might influence students' judgment for the worse about the worthiness <strong>of</strong> taking CS classes given that they can (or know someone who can) achieve more attractive outcomes in the use <strong>of</strong> the computer. Students' high level <strong>of</strong> frustration and their low self-reliance is also an obstacle to CS education. Debugging, for example, can be frustrating. Hence, educators face the tension between the need to provide students with attractive problems and less “hello-world”-like problems, so that the students will become engaged in their solution, while taking into consi<strong>der</strong>ation students’ “newcomerness” programming capabilities. This concern leads educators to <strong>of</strong>fer students problems the students might value as worth <strong>of</strong> their efforts, such as the development <strong>of</strong> computer games [11] and the processing <strong>of</strong> media [8, 9]. Some teach introductory courses using visual programming environments that enable work processes more reminiscent <strong>of</strong> students’ experience with the user interface. For example, Alice 3 [5] enables students to program 3-D characters using a graphical drag-and- drop programming. Similarly, Scratch was designed to motivate all students to program [17]. These environments enabled teachers to provide problems that students perceive as attractive while at the same time avoiding or postponing frustrating actions, such as debugging syntax. Both approaches rely on students' computer-related capital, as users, in an attempt to meet students where they are, provide them with an immediate sense <strong>of</strong> the relevance <strong>of</strong> school experience to their lives, and at the same time introduce them to the principles in programming in a way that the students might value and will be motivated to further their experience. Educators, however, should keep in mind that meeting students where they are should not aspire to leave them in their current cultural horizons, but rather to help the students expand their cultural perspective and cross the boundaries towards the pr<strong>of</strong>essional culture. 6. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS The challenges articulated in this paper emerge from the recognized need to transform schooling so that it better prepares students for life within a digitalized and globalized world. The cultural-encounter metaphor is useful to detect challenges as interaction between two (or more) intertwined cultures. Part <strong>of</strong> the resolution <strong>of</strong> these challenges includes the awareness <strong>of</strong> educators <strong>of</strong> the cultural capital <strong>of</strong> their students, accumulated through the students’ in and out-<strong>of</strong> school experience with ICT. The other part is to bridge between students’ current perspectives and the desired target practices and values. To this end, in previous studies [1], it has been suggested that educational situations should be designed as fertile zones <strong>of</strong> cultural encounter (FZCE), a metaphorical zone that enables using the students’ cultural capital as a bridge to the perspective represented by the teachers. FZCE occurs when the educational milieu clearly reflects the distinction between the intertwined 94 cultures, while making the cultural tools represented by the instructional setting accessible and relevant to the students. Creating FZCEs for today’s students is a great challenge. First, the target is complicated: it is about enculturation within the CS pr<strong>of</strong>essional culture while, at the same time, nurturing students’ life-long learning capacities. Moreover, as part <strong>of</strong> the general transformation in school, instructional milieus should be designed with more student-centeredness, allowing for and encouraging students to manage their learning actions. However, CS has great potential to serve as an arena to teach 21 st century skills in ways students perceive as relevant and therefore are more motivated to invest mental effort. 7. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I thank M. Ben-Ari and S. Pollack for their insightful comments. 8. REFERENCES [1] Ben-David Kolikant, Y., & Ben Ari, M. Fertile zones <strong>of</strong> cultural encounter in computer science education, Journal <strong>of</strong> the Learning Science, 2008, 1,17,1-32. [2] Ben-David Kolikant, Y., & Mussai, M. 'So my program does not run': definition, origins, and practical expressions <strong>of</strong> students' (mis)conceptions <strong>of</strong> correctness, CSE, 18, 2, 131- 151. [3] Brousseau, G. Theory <strong>of</strong> didactical situations in mathematics, Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic, 1997. [4] Collins, A., Brown, J. S., & Holum, A. (1991). Cognitive apprenticeship: Making thinking visible. American Educator, 12(6), 38-47. [5] Dann, W., & Cooper, S. Alice 3: concrete to abstract. Communications <strong>of</strong> the ACM, 2009, 52(8), 27–29. [6] Gee, P. J. (2003).What video games have to teach us about learning and literacy. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. [7] Goodell, H., Maulsby, D., Kuhn, S., & Traynor, C. End-user programming / informal programming. A workshop conducted at the ACM CHI 1999, SIGCHI Bulletin, 31 (4), 1999, 17-21. [8] Guzdial, M. (2003). A media computation course for nonmajors. In Proceeding <strong>of</strong> the ITiCSE (pp. 104–108). [9] Guzdial, M. & Tew, A. E. Imagineering inauthentic legitimate peripheral participation: an instructional design approach for motivating computing education. ICER 2006, ACM Press, New York, NY. (pp. 51–58). [10] Lave, J., & Wenger, E. (1991). Situated learning: Legitimate peripheral participation. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge <strong>University</strong> Press. [11] Leutenegger, S. and Edgington, J. 2007. A games first approach to teaching introductory programming. In SIGCSE '07. ACM, New York, NY, 115-118. [12] Nardi, B. A. (1993). A small matter <strong>of</strong> programming: Perspectives on end user computing. Cambridge: MIT Press. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
[13] OECD. (2006). Are students ready for a technology-rich world? What PISA studies tell us. http://www.oecd.org/document/31/0,3343,en_32252351_32 236173_35995743_1_1_1_1,00.html. Retrieved 09.08.09. [14] Papert, S. (1996). The connected family: Bridging the digital generation gap. Atlanta, GA: Longstreet Press. [15] Prensky, M. (2001). Digital natives, digital immigrants. On the Horizon, 9(5), 1–6. [16] Resnick, M. 2002. Rethinking learning in the digital age. In The global information technology report: Readiness for the networked world, ed. G. Kirkman. New York: Oxford <strong>University</strong> Press. 95 [17] Resnick, M., Maloney, J. , Monroy-Hernández, A., Rusk, N., Eastmond, E., Brennan, K., Millner, A., Rosenbaum, E., Silver, J., Silverman, B. Kafai., Y. (2009). Scratch: programming for all. Commun. ACM 52, 11, 60-67. [18] Turkle, S. (1995). Life on the screen: Identity in the age <strong>of</strong> the Internet. New York: Simon and Schuster. [19] Twenge, J. (2006). Generation Me: Why today’s young Americans are more confident, assertive, entitled – and more miserable than ever before. New York: Free Press.
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Fakultät für Mathematik, Informat
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Program Committee Michal Armoni Wei
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Challenge and Creativity: Students
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Challenges in Computer Science Educ
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examples, and in practice teachers
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Figure 3: A trace of bubble sort fr
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computer science, and with the less
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(GE) and freshmen CS and Lyceum (GR
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Performance Expectancy (PE) Satisfa
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for active CS teachers. Furthermore
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participants change between the roo
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Altogether 830 participants visited
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7. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The initial equi
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the knowledge about ICT and CS (see
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Technocamps: Bringing Computer Scie
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Gaming and Mathematics: A Cross Cur
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ABSTRACT This study examines the po