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Baklanov, A., P. G. Mestayer, A. Clappier, S. Zilitinkevich, S. Joffre, A. Mahura and N. W. Nielsen (2008). "Towards improving the simulation of meteorological fields in urban areas through updated/advanced surface fluxes description." Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 8(3): 523-543. Bass, B., E. S. Krayenhoff, A. Martilli, R. B. Stull and H. Auld (2003). The impact of green roofs on Toronto's urban heat island. First North American Green Roof Conference: Greening Rooftops for Sustainable Communities, Chicago. Benoit, R., M. Desgagne, P. Pellerin, S. Pellerin, Y. Chartier and S. Desjardins (1997). "The Canadian MC2: A semi-lagrangian, semi-implicit wide band atmospheric model suited for fine scale process studies and simulation." Monthly Weather Review 125: 2382-2415. Best, M. J. (2005). "Representing urban areas within operational numerical weather prediction models." Boundary-Layer Meteorology 114: 91-109. Best, M. J. (2006). "Progress towards better weather forecasts for city dwellers: from short range to climate change." Theoretical and Applied Climatology 84(1-3): 47-55. Best, M. J. and P. R. Clarke (2002). The influence of vegetation on the urban climate. 4th Symposium on the urban environment, Norfolk, Virginia. Best, M. J., C. S. B. Grimmond and M. G. Villani (2006). "Evaluation of the urban tile in MOSES using surface energy balance observations." Boundary-Layer Meteorology 118(3): 503-525. Bilham, E. G. (1938). The climate of the British Isles, London, Macmillan. Bohnenstengel, S. and K. H. Schlünzen (2008). Performance of different sub-grid-scale surface flux parameterisations for urban areas. COST Action 728. Enhancing mesoscale meteorological modelling capabilities for air pollution and dispersion applications, UK Met Office. Bonan, G. B. (1997). "Effects of land use on the climate of the United States." Climatic Change 37: 449-486. Bornstein, R. D. and K. J. Craig (2001). Urbanisation of numerical mesoscale models. International Symposium on Environmental Hydraulics. Bornstein, R. D. and D. S. Johnson (1977). "Urban-rural wind velocity differences." Atmospheric Environment 11(7): 597-604. Bornstein, R. D. and Q. Lin (2000). "Urban heat islands and summetime convective thunderstorms in Atlanta: three case studies." Atmospheric Environment 34: 507- 516. 244
Bottema, M. (1997). "Urban Roughness Modelling in Relation to Pollutant Dispersion." Atmospheric Environment 31: 3059-3075. Brazdil, R. and M. Budikova (1999). "An urban bias in air temperature fluctuations at the Klementinum, Prague, The Czech Republik." Atmospheric Environment 33: 4211- 4217. Brazel, A., P. Gober, S.-J. Lee, S. Grossman-Clarke, J. A. Zehnder, B. Hedquist and E. Comparri (2007). "Determinants of changes in regional urban heat island in metropolitan Phoenix (Arizona, USA) between 1990 and 2004." Climate Research 33: 171-182. Bretz, S., H. Akbari and A. H. Rosenfeld (1998). "Practical issues for using solar-reflective materials to mitigate urban heat islands." Atmospheric Environment 32(1): 95-101. Bretz, S. and A. H. Rosenfeld (1992). Mitigation of Urban Heat Island: Materials and Utility programmes. NIGEC "Supercities", San Francisco, CA. Britter, R. E. and S. E. Hanna (2003). "Flow and dispersion in urban areas." Annual Review of Fluid Mechanics 35: 469-496. Brown, M. (2000). Urban Parameterisations for Mesoscale Meteorological Models. Mesoscale Atmospheric Dispersion. Z. Boybey, Wessex Press: 448. Brown, M. and M. Williams (1998). An Urban Canopy Parameterisation for Mesoscale Meteorological Models. AMS 2nd Urban Environment Symposium, Alberquerque, NM. Brown, M. A. and F. Southworth (2008). "Mitigating climate change through green buildings and smart growth." Environment and Planning A 40(3): 653-675. Burian, S., M. J. Brown and S. P. Velugubantla (2002). Building height characteristics in three U.S. Cities. AMS 4th Symposium on the Urban Environment, Norfolk, VA. Ca, V. T., T. Asaeda and E. M. Abu (1998). "Reduction in air conditioning energy caused by a nearby park." Journal of Energy and Buildings 29: 83-92. Ca, V. T., T. Aseada and Y. Ashie (1999). "Development of a numerical model for the evaluation of the urban thermal environment." Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics 81: 181-191. Ca, V. T., Y. Ashie and T. Asaeda (2002). "A k-e turbulence closure model for the atmospheric boundary layer including urban canopy." Boundary-Layer Meteorology 102: 459-490. Chandler, T. J. (1960). "Wind as a factor of urban temperatures, a survey of North-East London." Weather 15: 204-213. 245
Page 1 and 2:
MODELLING THE IMPACT OF URBANISATIO
Page 3 and 4:
Abstract Urban areas have well docu
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Abbreviations aLMo Meteo Swiss oper
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4.2.2 Impact of the urban area on t
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List of figures Figure 2.1: Scales
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Figure 4.21: Diurnal variation of t
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Figure 6.16: Mean horizontal wind s
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Chapter 1: Introduction Urban areas
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with trends derived from a statisti
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scheme, and therefore it was necess
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The effects of future urban expansi
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2.1 Urban climate modification Urba
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latitudes (Taha 1997), and this is
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100 - 200 m 1 - 2 km 10 - 20 km 100
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epresentatively sample the underlyi
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over the city centre, convergent fl
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Cold islands can also occur in urba
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of the atmosphere. For example, it
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amount of solar radiation absorbed
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(Peterson 1969; Changnon 1992; Coll
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2.3 Justification of modelling appr
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Trusilova (2006) carried out a stud
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constant flux surface layer in the
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the vertical distribution of vegeta
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using different building parameters
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Table 2.2: SWOT analysis for the ME
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Fraction of urban land cover [%] Fi
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The built up area of London can cur
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Figure 2.5(a-f): Builtup area of Lo
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• Mainly high density development
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climate of London, and currently on
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For mid-latitude cities, of which L
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warming of 0.04 °C per decade, in
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out differences in the urban heat i
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adopted in previous studies ranges
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y the implementation of a specific
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A prognostic equation is used to re
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At the surface the temperature is c
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The boundary conditions used for th
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are defined in the file m1tini_TAPE
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The terms representing the impact o
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3.2.1 Calculation of dynamical effe
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θ k ∆z / 2 H Siu (Equation 3.12)
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3.3 Implementation of BEP in METRAS
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difficulties in the linking of the
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Table 3.3: Description of how the 2
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3.5.2 Orography data Orography data
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epresenting suburban development a
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Table 3.7 shows a summary of the MI
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3.6 Summary In this PhD study the m
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temperature, air pressure and air d
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Potential temperature [K] Figure 4.
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Wind speed [ms -1 ] Figure 4.2: Ver
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4.2.1 Horizontal cross sections of
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affected, as the flow bends around
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Downwind of the city on the other h
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the city, which is expected since t
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Potential temperature [K] Figure 4.
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simulation this effect is verticall
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differences are expected during day
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tend to cool the surface, but can a
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Figure 4.15 shows the vertical prof
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appropriate value for these paramet
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0.61) and that of conventional grav
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Difference in potential temperature
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educed near surface temperatures of
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fraction was increased in steps of
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works. In the control simulation th
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characterised by the albedo, therma
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is higher by a similar amount. The
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(a) Potential temperature [K] (c) T
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Figure 4.25 shows the vertical sect
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tests also reproduced well document
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Chapter 5: Evaluation of the urbani
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Fraction of urban land cover [%] Fi
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For the summers of 1995-2000 the an
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Table 5.2: Selected periods of simu
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commonly used as a rural reference
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newly urbanised version of the METR
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adiation trapping in the street can
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the second day of simulation (31 st
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Air temperature ( o C) 35 30 25 20
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the model. The smaller percentage o
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Wind speed (ms -1 ) Wind direction
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London Heathrow Airport (LHR) Wind
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A full set of hourly wind speed and
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contain both roofs exposed to direc
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Chapter 6: The effects of urban lan
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simulations with two hypothetical s
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dependent on the r(i,j), the radial
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centre of the domain was more than
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6.2 Effects of the current state of
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During daytime the shape of the are
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The calculation was performed for t
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ecause finding a rural reference po
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development (GLA 2006) and differen
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6.2.4 Wind speed and direction Klai
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Wind speed and direction (ms -1 ) F
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“urban” cells to be affected by
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the urban surface. Many other studi
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eason the near surface potential te
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Mean potential temperature at 12:00
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where A(x) is the area affected by
Page 207 and 208: Table 6.8: REI for the RADIUS, DENS
Page 209 and 210: COMBINED series also show a reducti
Page 211 and 212: for all runs in the series, and cor
Page 213 and 214: The runs are then combined into one
Page 215 and 216: to be more linear than the smaller
Page 217 and 218: The total reduction in mean wind sp
Page 219 and 220: The REI showed that for all the var
Page 221 and 222: Higher temperatures in the urban ar
Page 223 and 224: Over the next ten years the populat
Page 225 and 226: 7.1.1 EXPANSION series The first sc
Page 227 and 228: Another cause of this form of expan
Page 229 and 230: 7.2 Effects of urbanisation for the
Page 231 and 232: Mean near surface potential tempera
Page 233 and 234: UHI intensity (K) 4 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5
Page 235 and 236: temperature, an increase in the mea
Page 237 and 238: 7.2.3 Wind speed The effect of the
Page 239 and 240: 7.3 Effects of urbanisation for the
Page 241 and 242: mean near surface potential tempera
Page 243 and 244: 7.3.2 Wind speed Changes in the mea
Page 245 and 246: expansion strategies such as the re
Page 247 and 248: should also be considered to avoid
Page 249 and 250: models, for example Martilli et al.
Page 251 and 252: cities (Baker et al. 2002). Already
Page 253 and 254: uses, painting the roofs white to r
Page 255 and 256: The full influence of different met
Page 257: References Abercrombie, P. (1945).
Page 261 and 262: Craig, K. J. and R. D. Bornstein (2
Page 263 and 264: Grimmond, C. S. B. and T. R. Oke (2
Page 265 and 266: Jin, M. and J. M. Shepherd (2005).
Page 267 and 268: Lemonsu, A. and V. Masson (2002). "
Page 269 and 270: Nitis, T., Z. B. Klaic and N. Mouss
Page 271 and 272: alance in urban areas - Recent adva
Page 273 and 274: Seaman, N. L. (2000). "Meteorologic
Page 275 and 276: Therry, G. and P. Lacarrere (1983).
Page 277: Yague, C., E. Zurita and A. Martine
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