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Figure 2.6: Built up area for London in 1981, from Mogridge et al. (1997). The red box shows the domain used in Chapters 6 and 7 for the scenarios representing past and future urbanisation. In terms of the urban form of the city, Chandler (1965) identified a roughly concentric pattern of urban forms, from the outward growth from the two nuclei (see Figure 2.7). • Central London: central high density commercial district; characterised by modern buildings of steel, concrete and glass, and lower but equally massive and closely spaced Victorian (and older) buildings. Open spaces in Central London: St James’s Park (93 acres), Green Park (53 acres). Kensington Gardens (275 acres) and Hyde Park (360 acres). 44
• Mainly high density development (residential, industrial and dockside in the east) with a large number of open spaces from the years 1750-1914. • Mainly low density development from post 1914. Characterised by smaller, 2 storey, semi-detached and detached houses with gardens, on fairly wide roads, frequent open spaces such as playing fields and allotments, and some one of two storey factories. 45
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MODELLING THE IMPACT OF URBANISATIO
Page 3 and 4:
Abstract Urban areas have well docu
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Abbreviations aLMo Meteo Swiss oper
Page 7 and 8: 4.2.2 Impact of the urban area on t
Page 9 and 10: List of figures Figure 2.1: Scales
Page 11 and 12: Figure 4.21: Diurnal variation of t
Page 13 and 14: Figure 6.16: Mean horizontal wind s
Page 15 and 16: Chapter 1: Introduction Urban areas
Page 17 and 18: with trends derived from a statisti
Page 19 and 20: scheme, and therefore it was necess
Page 21 and 22: The effects of future urban expansi
Page 23 and 24: 2.1 Urban climate modification Urba
Page 25 and 26: latitudes (Taha 1997), and this is
Page 27 and 28: 100 - 200 m 1 - 2 km 10 - 20 km 100
Page 29 and 30: epresentatively sample the underlyi
Page 31 and 32: over the city centre, convergent fl
Page 33 and 34: Cold islands can also occur in urba
Page 35 and 36: of the atmosphere. For example, it
Page 37 and 38: amount of solar radiation absorbed
Page 39 and 40: (Peterson 1969; Changnon 1992; Coll
Page 41 and 42: 2.3 Justification of modelling appr
Page 43 and 44: Trusilova (2006) carried out a stud
Page 45 and 46: constant flux surface layer in the
Page 47 and 48: the vertical distribution of vegeta
Page 49 and 50: using different building parameters
Page 51 and 52: Table 2.2: SWOT analysis for the ME
Page 53 and 54: Fraction of urban land cover [%] Fi
Page 55 and 56: The built up area of London can cur
Page 57: Figure 2.5(a-f): Builtup area of Lo
Page 61 and 62: climate of London, and currently on
Page 63 and 64: For mid-latitude cities, of which L
Page 65 and 66: warming of 0.04 °C per decade, in
Page 67 and 68: out differences in the urban heat i
Page 69 and 70: adopted in previous studies ranges
Page 71 and 72: y the implementation of a specific
Page 73 and 74: A prognostic equation is used to re
Page 75 and 76: At the surface the temperature is c
Page 77 and 78: The boundary conditions used for th
Page 79 and 80: are defined in the file m1tini_TAPE
Page 81 and 82: The terms representing the impact o
Page 83 and 84: 3.2.1 Calculation of dynamical effe
Page 85 and 86: θ k ∆z / 2 H Siu (Equation 3.12)
Page 87 and 88: 3.3 Implementation of BEP in METRAS
Page 89 and 90: difficulties in the linking of the
Page 91 and 92: Table 3.3: Description of how the 2
Page 93 and 94: 3.5.2 Orography data Orography data
Page 95 and 96: epresenting suburban development a
Page 97 and 98: Table 3.7 shows a summary of the MI
Page 99 and 100: 3.6 Summary In this PhD study the m
Page 101 and 102: temperature, air pressure and air d
Page 103 and 104: Potential temperature [K] Figure 4.
Page 105 and 106: Wind speed [ms -1 ] Figure 4.2: Ver
Page 107 and 108: 4.2.1 Horizontal cross sections of
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affected, as the flow bends around
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Downwind of the city on the other h
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the city, which is expected since t
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Potential temperature [K] Figure 4.
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simulation this effect is verticall
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differences are expected during day
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tend to cool the surface, but can a
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Figure 4.15 shows the vertical prof
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appropriate value for these paramet
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0.61) and that of conventional grav
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Difference in potential temperature
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educed near surface temperatures of
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fraction was increased in steps of
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works. In the control simulation th
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characterised by the albedo, therma
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is higher by a similar amount. The
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(a) Potential temperature [K] (c) T
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Figure 4.25 shows the vertical sect
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tests also reproduced well document
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Chapter 5: Evaluation of the urbani
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Fraction of urban land cover [%] Fi
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For the summers of 1995-2000 the an
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Table 5.2: Selected periods of simu
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commonly used as a rural reference
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newly urbanised version of the METR
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adiation trapping in the street can
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the second day of simulation (31 st
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Air temperature ( o C) 35 30 25 20
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the model. The smaller percentage o
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Wind speed (ms -1 ) Wind direction
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London Heathrow Airport (LHR) Wind
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A full set of hourly wind speed and
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contain both roofs exposed to direc
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Chapter 6: The effects of urban lan
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simulations with two hypothetical s
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dependent on the r(i,j), the radial
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centre of the domain was more than
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6.2 Effects of the current state of
Page 185 and 186:
During daytime the shape of the are
Page 187 and 188:
The calculation was performed for t
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ecause finding a rural reference po
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development (GLA 2006) and differen
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6.2.4 Wind speed and direction Klai
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Wind speed and direction (ms -1 ) F
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“urban” cells to be affected by
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the urban surface. Many other studi
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eason the near surface potential te
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Mean potential temperature at 12:00
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where A(x) is the area affected by
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Table 6.8: REI for the RADIUS, DENS
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COMBINED series also show a reducti
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for all runs in the series, and cor
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The runs are then combined into one
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to be more linear than the smaller
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The total reduction in mean wind sp
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The REI showed that for all the var
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Higher temperatures in the urban ar
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Over the next ten years the populat
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7.1.1 EXPANSION series The first sc
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Another cause of this form of expan
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7.2 Effects of urbanisation for the
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Mean near surface potential tempera
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UHI intensity (K) 4 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5
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temperature, an increase in the mea
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7.2.3 Wind speed The effect of the
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7.3 Effects of urbanisation for the
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mean near surface potential tempera
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7.3.2 Wind speed Changes in the mea
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expansion strategies such as the re
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should also be considered to avoid
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models, for example Martilli et al.
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cities (Baker et al. 2002). Already
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uses, painting the roofs white to r
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The full influence of different met
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References Abercrombie, P. (1945).
Page 259 and 260:
Bottema, M. (1997). "Urban Roughnes
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Craig, K. J. and R. D. Bornstein (2
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Grimmond, C. S. B. and T. R. Oke (2
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Jin, M. and J. M. Shepherd (2005).
Page 267 and 268:
Lemonsu, A. and V. Masson (2002). "
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Nitis, T., Z. B. Klaic and N. Mouss
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alance in urban areas - Recent adva
Page 273 and 274:
Seaman, N. L. (2000). "Meteorologic
Page 275 and 276:
Therry, G. and P. Lacarrere (1983).
Page 277:
Yague, C., E. Zurita and A. Martine
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