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Oleson, K. W., G. B. Bonan, J. Feddema and M. Vertenstein (2008). "An urban parameterization for a global climate model. Part II: Sensitivity to input parameters and the simulated urban heat island in offline Simulations." Journal of Applied Meteorology and Climatology 47(4): 1061-1076. Oleson, K. W., G. B. Bonan, J. Feddema, M. Vertenstein and C. S. B. Grimmond (2008). "An urban parameterization for a global climate model. Part I: Formulation and evaluation for two cities." Journal of Applied Meteorology and Climatology 47(4): 1038-1060. Otte, T. L., A. Lacser, S. Dupont and J. K. S. Ching (2004). "Implementation of an urban canopy parameterization in a mesoscale meteorological model." Journal of Applied Meteorology. Palumbo, A. and A. Mazzarella (1980). "Rainfall Statistical Properties in Naples." Monthly Weather Review 108: 1041-1045. Parker, D. J. (1995). Hazard in the London megacity, Middlesex University. Peterson, J. T. (1969). The climate of cities: a survey of recent literature, NAOCA Publications. Philandras, C. M., D. A. Metaxas and P. T. Nastos (1999). "Climate variability and urbanization in Athens." Theoretical and Applied Climatology 63: 65-72. Pielke, R. A. (1984). Mesoscale meteorological modeling. San Diego, Academic Press. Pielke, R. A., G. Marland, R. A. Betts, T. N. Chase, J. L. Eastman, J. O. Niles, D. S. Niyogi and S. W. Running (2002). "The influence of land-use change and landscape dynamics on the climate system: relevance to climate-change policy beyond the radiative effect of greenhouse gases." Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series A - Mathematical, Physical and Environmental Sciences 360(1797): 1705-1719. Pielke, R. A. and M. Uliasz (1998). "Use of meteorological models as input to regional and mesoscale air quality models - limitations and strengths." Atmospheric Environment 32: 1455-1466. Pinho, O. S. and M. D. Manso-Orgaz (2000). "The urban heat island in a small city in coastal Portugal." International Journal of Biometeorology 44: 198-203. Pino, D., J. Vila-Guerau de Arellano, A. Comeron and F. Rocadenbosch (2004). "The boundary layer growth in au urban area." Science of the Total Environment 334- 335: 207-213. Piringer, M., C. S. B. Grimmond, S. M. Joffre, P. Mestayer, D. R. Middleton, M. W. Rotach, A. Baklanov, K. De Ridder, J. Ferreira, E. Guilloteau, A. Karppinen, A. Martilli, V. Masson and M. Tombrou (2002). "Investigating the surface energy 256
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MODELLING THE IMPACT OF URBANISATIO
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Abstract Urban areas have well docu
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Abbreviations aLMo Meteo Swiss oper
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4.2.2 Impact of the urban area on t
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List of figures Figure 2.1: Scales
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Figure 4.21: Diurnal variation of t
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Figure 6.16: Mean horizontal wind s
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Chapter 1: Introduction Urban areas
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with trends derived from a statisti
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scheme, and therefore it was necess
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The effects of future urban expansi
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2.1 Urban climate modification Urba
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latitudes (Taha 1997), and this is
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100 - 200 m 1 - 2 km 10 - 20 km 100
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epresentatively sample the underlyi
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over the city centre, convergent fl
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Cold islands can also occur in urba
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of the atmosphere. For example, it
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amount of solar radiation absorbed
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(Peterson 1969; Changnon 1992; Coll
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2.3 Justification of modelling appr
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Trusilova (2006) carried out a stud
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constant flux surface layer in the
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the vertical distribution of vegeta
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using different building parameters
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Table 2.2: SWOT analysis for the ME
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Fraction of urban land cover [%] Fi
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The built up area of London can cur
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Figure 2.5(a-f): Builtup area of Lo
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• Mainly high density development
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climate of London, and currently on
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For mid-latitude cities, of which L
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warming of 0.04 °C per decade, in
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out differences in the urban heat i
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adopted in previous studies ranges
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y the implementation of a specific
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A prognostic equation is used to re
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At the surface the temperature is c
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The boundary conditions used for th
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are defined in the file m1tini_TAPE
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The terms representing the impact o
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3.2.1 Calculation of dynamical effe
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θ k ∆z / 2 H Siu (Equation 3.12)
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3.3 Implementation of BEP in METRAS
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difficulties in the linking of the
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Table 3.3: Description of how the 2
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3.5.2 Orography data Orography data
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epresenting suburban development a
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Table 3.7 shows a summary of the MI
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3.6 Summary In this PhD study the m
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temperature, air pressure and air d
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Potential temperature [K] Figure 4.
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Wind speed [ms -1 ] Figure 4.2: Ver
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4.2.1 Horizontal cross sections of
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affected, as the flow bends around
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Downwind of the city on the other h
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the city, which is expected since t
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Potential temperature [K] Figure 4.
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simulation this effect is verticall
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differences are expected during day
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tend to cool the surface, but can a
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Figure 4.15 shows the vertical prof
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appropriate value for these paramet
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0.61) and that of conventional grav
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Difference in potential temperature
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educed near surface temperatures of
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fraction was increased in steps of
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works. In the control simulation th
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characterised by the albedo, therma
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is higher by a similar amount. The
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(a) Potential temperature [K] (c) T
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Figure 4.25 shows the vertical sect
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tests also reproduced well document
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Chapter 5: Evaluation of the urbani
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Fraction of urban land cover [%] Fi
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For the summers of 1995-2000 the an
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Table 5.2: Selected periods of simu
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commonly used as a rural reference
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newly urbanised version of the METR
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adiation trapping in the street can
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the second day of simulation (31 st
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Air temperature ( o C) 35 30 25 20
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the model. The smaller percentage o
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Wind speed (ms -1 ) Wind direction
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London Heathrow Airport (LHR) Wind
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A full set of hourly wind speed and
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contain both roofs exposed to direc
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Chapter 6: The effects of urban lan
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simulations with two hypothetical s
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dependent on the r(i,j), the radial
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centre of the domain was more than
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6.2 Effects of the current state of
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During daytime the shape of the are
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The calculation was performed for t
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ecause finding a rural reference po
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development (GLA 2006) and differen
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6.2.4 Wind speed and direction Klai
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Wind speed and direction (ms -1 ) F
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“urban” cells to be affected by
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the urban surface. Many other studi
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eason the near surface potential te
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Mean potential temperature at 12:00
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where A(x) is the area affected by
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Table 6.8: REI for the RADIUS, DENS
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COMBINED series also show a reducti
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for all runs in the series, and cor
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The runs are then combined into one
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to be more linear than the smaller
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The total reduction in mean wind sp
Page 219 and 220: The REI showed that for all the var
Page 221 and 222: Higher temperatures in the urban ar
Page 223 and 224: Over the next ten years the populat
Page 225 and 226: 7.1.1 EXPANSION series The first sc
Page 227 and 228: Another cause of this form of expan
Page 229 and 230: 7.2 Effects of urbanisation for the
Page 231 and 232: Mean near surface potential tempera
Page 233 and 234: UHI intensity (K) 4 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5
Page 235 and 236: temperature, an increase in the mea
Page 237 and 238: 7.2.3 Wind speed The effect of the
Page 239 and 240: 7.3 Effects of urbanisation for the
Page 241 and 242: mean near surface potential tempera
Page 243 and 244: 7.3.2 Wind speed Changes in the mea
Page 245 and 246: expansion strategies such as the re
Page 247 and 248: should also be considered to avoid
Page 249 and 250: models, for example Martilli et al.
Page 251 and 252: cities (Baker et al. 2002). Already
Page 253 and 254: uses, painting the roofs white to r
Page 255 and 256: The full influence of different met
Page 257 and 258: References Abercrombie, P. (1945).
Page 259 and 260: Bottema, M. (1997). "Urban Roughnes
Page 261 and 262: Craig, K. J. and R. D. Bornstein (2
Page 263 and 264: Grimmond, C. S. B. and T. R. Oke (2
Page 265 and 266: Jin, M. and J. M. Shepherd (2005).
Page 267 and 268: Lemonsu, A. and V. Masson (2002). "
Page 269: Nitis, T., Z. B. Klaic and N. Mouss
Page 273 and 274: Seaman, N. L. (2000). "Meteorologic
Page 275 and 276: Therry, G. and P. Lacarrere (1983).
Page 277: Yague, C., E. Zurita and A. Martine
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