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Martilli, A. (2007). "Current research and future challenges in urban mesoscale modelling." International Journal of Climatology 27(14): 1909-1918. Martilli, A., A. Clappier and M. W. Rotach (2002). "An urban surface exchange parameterisation for mesoscale models." Boundary-Layer Meteorology 104(2): 261-304. Martilli, A., Y. A. Roulet, M. Junier, F. Kirchner, M. W. Rotach and A. Clappier (2003). "On the impact of urban surface exchange parameterisations on air quality simulations: the Athens case." Atmospheric Environment 37(30): 4217-4231. Martilli, A. and R. Schmitz (2007). Implementation of an Urban Canopy Parameterization in WRF-chem. Preliminary results. The Seventh Symposium on the Urban Environment, San Diego, CA. Masson, V. (2000). "A physically-based scheme for the urban energy budget in atmospheric models." Boundary-Layer Meteorology 94: 357-397. Masson, V. (2006). "Urban surface modelling and the meso-scale impact of cities." Theoretical and Applied Climatology 84: 35-45. Masson, V., C. S. B. Grimmond and T. R. Oke (2002). "Evaluation of the Town Energy Balance (TEB) scheme with direct measurements from dry districts in two cities." Journal of Applied Meteorology 41(10): 1011-1026. Mesinger, F. and A. Arakawa (1976). "Numerical methods used in atmospheric models." Garp Publication series 17(1). Mogridge, M. and J. B. Parr (1997). "Metropolis or Region: On the Development and Structure of London." Regional Studies 31: 97-115. Mölders, N. and M. A. Olsen (2004). "Impact of urban effects on precipitation in high latitudes." Journal of Hydrometeorology 5: 409-429. Moreno, M. C. (1994). "Intensity and Form of the Urban Heat Island in Barcelona." International Journal of Climatology 14: 705-710. Morris, C. J. G., I. Simmonds and N. Plummer (2001). "Quantification of the influences of wind and cloud on the nocturnal urban heat island of a large city." Journal of Applied Meteorology 40: 169-182. Muller, C. (2007). Improvement of an urban turbulence parameterization for meteorological operational forecast and air quality modeling. Lausanne, EPFL. Myrup, L. (1969). "A numerical model of the Urban Heat Island." Journal of Applied Meteorology 8: 908-918. 254
Nitis, T., Z. B. Klaic and N. Moussiopoulos (2005). Effects of topography on urban heat island. 10th International Conference on Harmonisation within Atmospheric Dispersion Modelling for Regulatory Purposes, Sissi (Malia), Crete, Greece. Nowak, D. J., K. L. Civerolo, S. T. Rao, G. Sistla, C. J. Luley and D. E. Crane (2000). "A modeling study of the impact of urban trees on ozone." Atmospheric Environment 34: 1601-1613. Oestges, C., S. R. Saunders and D. Vanhoenacker-Janvier (1999). Physical statistical modelling of the land mobile satellite channel based on ray tracing. IEE Proceedings - Microwave Antennas Propagation. Offerle, B., C. S. B. Grimmond and T. R. Oke (2003). "Parameterisation of Net All-Wave Radiation for Urban Areas." Journal of Applied Meteorology 42: 1157-1173. Oke, T. R. (1981). "Canyon geometry and the nocturnal heat island. Comparison of scale model and field observations." Journal of Climatology 1: 237-254. Oke, T. R. (1982). "The Energetic Basis of the Urban Heat-Island." Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society 108(455): 1-24. Oke, T. R. (1987). Boundary layer climates. Oke, T. R. (1988). "The Urban Energy-Balance." Progress in Physical Geography 12(4): 471-508. Oke, T. R. (1989). "The Micrometeorology of the Urban Forest." Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London Series B-Biological Sciences 324(1223): 335-349. Oke, T. R. (1995). The Heat Island of the Urban Boundary Layer: Characteristics, Causes and Effects. Wind Climate of Cities. J. E. e. a. Cermak. Dordrecht, Boston, Kluwer Academic Publishers: 81-107. Oke, T. R. (1997). Urban Environments. The surface climates of Canada. W. B. Bailey, T. R. Oke and W. R. Rousse. Montreal, McGill-Queen's University Press: 303-327. Oke, T. R., G. T. Johnson, D. G. Steyn and I. D. Watson (1991). "Simulation of surface urban heat islands under "Ideal" conditions at night. Part 2: Diagnosis of causation." Boundary-Layer Meteorology 56: 339-358. Oke, T. R., B. D. Kalanda and D. G. Steyn (1981). "Parameterization of Heat-Storage in Urban Areas." Urban Ecology 5(1): 45-54. Oke, T. R. and G. B. Maxwell (1975). "Urban Heat Island Dynamics in Montreal and Vancouver." Atmospheric Environment 9(2): 191-200. 255
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MODELLING THE IMPACT OF URBANISATIO
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Abstract Urban areas have well docu
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Abbreviations aLMo Meteo Swiss oper
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4.2.2 Impact of the urban area on t
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List of figures Figure 2.1: Scales
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Figure 4.21: Diurnal variation of t
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Figure 6.16: Mean horizontal wind s
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Chapter 1: Introduction Urban areas
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with trends derived from a statisti
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scheme, and therefore it was necess
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The effects of future urban expansi
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2.1 Urban climate modification Urba
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latitudes (Taha 1997), and this is
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100 - 200 m 1 - 2 km 10 - 20 km 100
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epresentatively sample the underlyi
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over the city centre, convergent fl
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Cold islands can also occur in urba
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of the atmosphere. For example, it
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amount of solar radiation absorbed
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(Peterson 1969; Changnon 1992; Coll
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2.3 Justification of modelling appr
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Trusilova (2006) carried out a stud
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constant flux surface layer in the
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the vertical distribution of vegeta
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using different building parameters
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Table 2.2: SWOT analysis for the ME
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Fraction of urban land cover [%] Fi
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The built up area of London can cur
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Figure 2.5(a-f): Builtup area of Lo
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• Mainly high density development
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climate of London, and currently on
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For mid-latitude cities, of which L
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warming of 0.04 °C per decade, in
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out differences in the urban heat i
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adopted in previous studies ranges
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y the implementation of a specific
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A prognostic equation is used to re
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At the surface the temperature is c
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The boundary conditions used for th
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are defined in the file m1tini_TAPE
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The terms representing the impact o
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3.2.1 Calculation of dynamical effe
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θ k ∆z / 2 H Siu (Equation 3.12)
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3.3 Implementation of BEP in METRAS
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difficulties in the linking of the
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Table 3.3: Description of how the 2
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3.5.2 Orography data Orography data
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epresenting suburban development a
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Table 3.7 shows a summary of the MI
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3.6 Summary In this PhD study the m
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temperature, air pressure and air d
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Potential temperature [K] Figure 4.
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Wind speed [ms -1 ] Figure 4.2: Ver
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4.2.1 Horizontal cross sections of
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affected, as the flow bends around
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Downwind of the city on the other h
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the city, which is expected since t
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Potential temperature [K] Figure 4.
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simulation this effect is verticall
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differences are expected during day
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tend to cool the surface, but can a
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Figure 4.15 shows the vertical prof
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appropriate value for these paramet
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0.61) and that of conventional grav
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Difference in potential temperature
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educed near surface temperatures of
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fraction was increased in steps of
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works. In the control simulation th
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characterised by the albedo, therma
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is higher by a similar amount. The
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(a) Potential temperature [K] (c) T
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Figure 4.25 shows the vertical sect
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tests also reproduced well document
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Chapter 5: Evaluation of the urbani
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Fraction of urban land cover [%] Fi
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For the summers of 1995-2000 the an
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Table 5.2: Selected periods of simu
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commonly used as a rural reference
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newly urbanised version of the METR
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adiation trapping in the street can
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the second day of simulation (31 st
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Air temperature ( o C) 35 30 25 20
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the model. The smaller percentage o
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Wind speed (ms -1 ) Wind direction
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London Heathrow Airport (LHR) Wind
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A full set of hourly wind speed and
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contain both roofs exposed to direc
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Chapter 6: The effects of urban lan
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simulations with two hypothetical s
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dependent on the r(i,j), the radial
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centre of the domain was more than
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6.2 Effects of the current state of
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During daytime the shape of the are
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The calculation was performed for t
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ecause finding a rural reference po
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development (GLA 2006) and differen
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6.2.4 Wind speed and direction Klai
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Wind speed and direction (ms -1 ) F
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“urban” cells to be affected by
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the urban surface. Many other studi
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eason the near surface potential te
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Mean potential temperature at 12:00
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where A(x) is the area affected by
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Table 6.8: REI for the RADIUS, DENS
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COMBINED series also show a reducti
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for all runs in the series, and cor
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The runs are then combined into one
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to be more linear than the smaller
Page 217 and 218: The total reduction in mean wind sp
Page 219 and 220: The REI showed that for all the var
Page 221 and 222: Higher temperatures in the urban ar
Page 223 and 224: Over the next ten years the populat
Page 225 and 226: 7.1.1 EXPANSION series The first sc
Page 227 and 228: Another cause of this form of expan
Page 229 and 230: 7.2 Effects of urbanisation for the
Page 231 and 232: Mean near surface potential tempera
Page 233 and 234: UHI intensity (K) 4 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5
Page 235 and 236: temperature, an increase in the mea
Page 237 and 238: 7.2.3 Wind speed The effect of the
Page 239 and 240: 7.3 Effects of urbanisation for the
Page 241 and 242: mean near surface potential tempera
Page 243 and 244: 7.3.2 Wind speed Changes in the mea
Page 245 and 246: expansion strategies such as the re
Page 247 and 248: should also be considered to avoid
Page 249 and 250: models, for example Martilli et al.
Page 251 and 252: cities (Baker et al. 2002). Already
Page 253 and 254: uses, painting the roofs white to r
Page 255 and 256: The full influence of different met
Page 257 and 258: References Abercrombie, P. (1945).
Page 259 and 260: Bottema, M. (1997). "Urban Roughnes
Page 261 and 262: Craig, K. J. and R. D. Bornstein (2
Page 263 and 264: Grimmond, C. S. B. and T. R. Oke (2
Page 265 and 266: Jin, M. and J. M. Shepherd (2005).
Page 267: Lemonsu, A. and V. Masson (2002). "
Page 271 and 272: alance in urban areas - Recent adva
Page 273 and 274: Seaman, N. L. (2000). "Meteorologic
Page 275 and 276: Therry, G. and P. Lacarrere (1983).
Page 277: Yague, C., E. Zurita and A. Martine
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