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Uno, I., H. Ueda and S. Wakamatsu (1989). "Numerical modelling of the Nocturnal Urban Boundary Layer." Boundary-Layer Meteorology 49: 77-98. Upmanis, H., I. Eliasson and S. Lindqvist (1998). "The influence of green areas on nocturnal temperatures in a high latitude city (Goteborg, Sweden)." International Journal of Biometeorology 18: 681-700. Velazquez-Lozada, A., J. E. Gonzalez and A. Winter (2006). "Urban heat island analysis for San Juan, Puerto Rico." Atmospheric Environment 40: 1731-1741. Wang, X. M., W. S. Lin, L. M. Yang, R. R. Deng and H. Lin (2007). "A numerical study of influences of urban land-use change on ozone distribution over the Pearl River Delta region, China." Tellus B 59(3): 633-641. West, C. C. and M. J. Gawith (2005). Measuring Progress: Preparing for climate change through the UK Climate Impacts Programme. UKCIP Technical Report. Oxford, UKCIP. Whitehand, J. W. R. and K. Gu (2006). "Research on Chinese urban form: retrospect and prospect." Progress in Physical Geography 30(3): 337-355. Wichansky, P. S., L. T. Steyaert, R. L. Walko and C. P. Weaver (2008). "Evaluating the effects of historical land cover change on summertime weather and climate in New Jersey: Land cover and surface energy budget changes." Journal of Geophysical Research-Atmospheres 113(D10). Wilby, R. L. (2003). "Past and projected trends in London's urban heat island." Weather 58: 251-260. Wilby, R. L. and G. L. W. Perry (2006). "Climate change, biodiversity and the urban environment: a critical review based on London, UK." Progress in Physical Geography 30(1): 73-98. WMO (1996). Guide to Meteorological Instruments and Methods of Observation. Geneva. WMO (2006). Initial Guidance to Obtain Representative Meteorological Observations at Urban Sites. Wong, K. and R. Dirks (1978). "Mesoscale perturbations on Airflow in the Urban Mixing Layer." Journal of Applied Meteorology 17: 677-688. Wosik, G., K. Bigalke and K. H. Schlunzen (1994). GRITOP - Preprozessor zur Initialisierung von Topographiedaten fur das Modell METRAS. METRAS Technical Report 3, Meteorologisches Institut, Universitat Hamburg: 24. Xue, Y. and J. Shukla (1993). "The Influence of Land Surface Properties on Sahel Climate. Part 1: Desertification." Journal of Climate 6: 2232-2245. 262
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MODELLING THE IMPACT OF URBANISATIO
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Abstract Urban areas have well docu
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Abbreviations aLMo Meteo Swiss oper
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4.2.2 Impact of the urban area on t
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List of figures Figure 2.1: Scales
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Figure 4.21: Diurnal variation of t
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Figure 6.16: Mean horizontal wind s
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Chapter 1: Introduction Urban areas
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with trends derived from a statisti
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scheme, and therefore it was necess
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The effects of future urban expansi
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2.1 Urban climate modification Urba
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latitudes (Taha 1997), and this is
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100 - 200 m 1 - 2 km 10 - 20 km 100
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epresentatively sample the underlyi
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over the city centre, convergent fl
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Cold islands can also occur in urba
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of the atmosphere. For example, it
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amount of solar radiation absorbed
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(Peterson 1969; Changnon 1992; Coll
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2.3 Justification of modelling appr
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Trusilova (2006) carried out a stud
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constant flux surface layer in the
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the vertical distribution of vegeta
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using different building parameters
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Table 2.2: SWOT analysis for the ME
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Fraction of urban land cover [%] Fi
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The built up area of London can cur
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Figure 2.5(a-f): Builtup area of Lo
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• Mainly high density development
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climate of London, and currently on
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For mid-latitude cities, of which L
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warming of 0.04 °C per decade, in
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out differences in the urban heat i
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adopted in previous studies ranges
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y the implementation of a specific
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A prognostic equation is used to re
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At the surface the temperature is c
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The boundary conditions used for th
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are defined in the file m1tini_TAPE
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The terms representing the impact o
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3.2.1 Calculation of dynamical effe
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θ k ∆z / 2 H Siu (Equation 3.12)
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3.3 Implementation of BEP in METRAS
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difficulties in the linking of the
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Table 3.3: Description of how the 2
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3.5.2 Orography data Orography data
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epresenting suburban development a
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Table 3.7 shows a summary of the MI
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3.6 Summary In this PhD study the m
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temperature, air pressure and air d
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Potential temperature [K] Figure 4.
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Wind speed [ms -1 ] Figure 4.2: Ver
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4.2.1 Horizontal cross sections of
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affected, as the flow bends around
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Downwind of the city on the other h
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the city, which is expected since t
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Potential temperature [K] Figure 4.
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simulation this effect is verticall
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differences are expected during day
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tend to cool the surface, but can a
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Figure 4.15 shows the vertical prof
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appropriate value for these paramet
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0.61) and that of conventional grav
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Difference in potential temperature
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educed near surface temperatures of
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fraction was increased in steps of
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works. In the control simulation th
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characterised by the albedo, therma
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is higher by a similar amount. The
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(a) Potential temperature [K] (c) T
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Figure 4.25 shows the vertical sect
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tests also reproduced well document
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Chapter 5: Evaluation of the urbani
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Fraction of urban land cover [%] Fi
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For the summers of 1995-2000 the an
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Table 5.2: Selected periods of simu
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commonly used as a rural reference
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newly urbanised version of the METR
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adiation trapping in the street can
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the second day of simulation (31 st
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Air temperature ( o C) 35 30 25 20
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the model. The smaller percentage o
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Wind speed (ms -1 ) Wind direction
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London Heathrow Airport (LHR) Wind
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A full set of hourly wind speed and
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contain both roofs exposed to direc
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Chapter 6: The effects of urban lan
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simulations with two hypothetical s
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dependent on the r(i,j), the radial
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centre of the domain was more than
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6.2 Effects of the current state of
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During daytime the shape of the are
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The calculation was performed for t
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ecause finding a rural reference po
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development (GLA 2006) and differen
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6.2.4 Wind speed and direction Klai
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Wind speed and direction (ms -1 ) F
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“urban” cells to be affected by
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the urban surface. Many other studi
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eason the near surface potential te
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Mean potential temperature at 12:00
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where A(x) is the area affected by
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Table 6.8: REI for the RADIUS, DENS
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COMBINED series also show a reducti
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for all runs in the series, and cor
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The runs are then combined into one
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to be more linear than the smaller
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The total reduction in mean wind sp
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The REI showed that for all the var
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Higher temperatures in the urban ar
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Over the next ten years the populat
Page 225 and 226: 7.1.1 EXPANSION series The first sc
Page 227 and 228: Another cause of this form of expan
Page 229 and 230: 7.2 Effects of urbanisation for the
Page 231 and 232: Mean near surface potential tempera
Page 233 and 234: UHI intensity (K) 4 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5
Page 235 and 236: temperature, an increase in the mea
Page 237 and 238: 7.2.3 Wind speed The effect of the
Page 239 and 240: 7.3 Effects of urbanisation for the
Page 241 and 242: mean near surface potential tempera
Page 243 and 244: 7.3.2 Wind speed Changes in the mea
Page 245 and 246: expansion strategies such as the re
Page 247 and 248: should also be considered to avoid
Page 249 and 250: models, for example Martilli et al.
Page 251 and 252: cities (Baker et al. 2002). Already
Page 253 and 254: uses, painting the roofs white to r
Page 255 and 256: The full influence of different met
Page 257 and 258: References Abercrombie, P. (1945).
Page 259 and 260: Bottema, M. (1997). "Urban Roughnes
Page 261 and 262: Craig, K. J. and R. D. Bornstein (2
Page 263 and 264: Grimmond, C. S. B. and T. R. Oke (2
Page 265 and 266: Jin, M. and J. M. Shepherd (2005).
Page 267 and 268: Lemonsu, A. and V. Masson (2002). "
Page 269 and 270: Nitis, T., Z. B. Klaic and N. Mouss
Page 271 and 272: alance in urban areas - Recent adva
Page 273 and 274: Seaman, N. L. (2000). "Meteorologic
Page 275: Therry, G. and P. Lacarrere (1983).
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