Basic Research Needs for Solar Energy Utilization - Office of ...

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equired 20–30 years of operation to produce cost-effective solar electricity or fuels. The successful realization of defect-tolerant materials and device structures has the potential to revolutionize the high-volume production of both solar electricity and fuels. The knowledge gained in determining how to actively repair molecular systems will have broad relevance to the vast array of applications that depend on molecular materials. 148
SOLAR THERMOCHEMICAL FUEL PRODUCTION Solar concentrating systems currently provide the lowest-cost technology for solar electricity production, and they offer the possibility of economically supplying high-temperature heat for driving thermochemical processes for hydrogen generation. Solar fuel production via thermochemical processes requires fundamental kinetic studies of the reactions involved and the development of novel chemical reactor technology for effecting these high-temperature reactions with high solar-to-fuel energy conversion efficiencies. RESEARCH DIRECTION Thermochemical Fuel Production Research in thermochemical fuel production is aimed at the advancement of the thermochemical and thermo-electrochemical sciences applied to the efficient thermochemical production of solar fuels, with the focus on solar hydrogen production. Concentrated solar radiation is used as the energy source of high-temperature process heat for the endothermic chemical transformations. The research emphasis is on the following areas: • The fundamental analysis of radiation heat exchange coupled to the kinetics of heterogeneous thermochemical systems; • The design of advanced chemical reactor concepts based on the direct irradiation of reactants for efficient energy absorption; • The development of high-temperature materials (T>1,500°C) for thermochemical and thermo-electrochemical reactors; and • The production of hydrogen by water-splitting thermochemical cycles via metal oxide redox reactions and by thermal decarbonization of fossil fuels via gasification of carbonaceous materials. Hydrogen Production by Solar Thermochemical Processes Solar Water-Splitting Thermochemical Cycles. The single-step thermal dissociation of water is known as water thermolysis. Although conceptually simple, the direct water-splitting has been impeded by the need for a high-temperature heat source above 3,000K for achieving a reasonable degree of dissociation and by the need for an effective technique for separating H2 and O2 to avoid ending up with an explosive mixture. Water-splitting thermochemical cycles bypass the H2/O2 separation problem and also allow operating at relatively moderate upper temperatures. Previous studies performed on H2O-splitting thermochemical cycles were mostly characterized by the use of process heat at temperatures below about 1,200K, available from nuclear and other thermal sources. These cycles required multiple steps (more than two) and suffered from inherent inefficiencies associated with heat transfer and product separation at each step. Status reviews on multistep cycles, with upper temperatures below 1,200K, are given by Funk (2001) and include the leading candidates: General Atomics’ three-step cycle based on the thermal decomposition of 149
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On the Cover: One route to harvesti
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Revisions, September 2005 p ix, par
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CONTENTS (CONT.) Appendix 4: Additi
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OEC oxygen-evolving complex PCET pr
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viii
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thin films, organic semiconductors,
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genetic sequencing, protein product
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INTRODUCTION The supply and demand
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showing promise to overcome them. T
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GLOBAL ENERGY RESOURCES 7
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energy can be exploited on the need
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BASIC RESEARCH CHALLENGES FOR SOLAR
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CONVERSION OF SUNLIGHT INTO ELECTRI
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PHYSICS OF PHOTOVOLTAIC CELLS Inorg
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Figure 4 Learning curve for PV prod
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Needs of Direct-gap, Thin-film Phot
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Figure 6 Current record efficiencie
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devices. The molecules and material
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Figure 8 Structure for high-efficie
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One critical property of the photoa
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PHOTOELECTROCHEMICAL STORAGE CELLS
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BASIC RESEARCH CHALLENGES FOR SOLAR
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information about the proteins that
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convert it into H2 and liquid fuels
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charge separation ensures highly ef
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Efficient Photo-initiated Charge Se
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artificial RCs, have proven to be i
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CATALYSTS FOR CO2 REDUCTION Photo-d
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Upon photoexcitation, the electron
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(5) determining the physical and ch
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following challenges must be met: (
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A.F. Heyduk and D.G. Nocera, “Hyd
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J. Seth, V. Palaniappan, R.W. Wagne
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THREE TYPES OF CONCENTRATED SOLAR
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Solar Thermal to Electric Energy Co
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Tm = mean temperature Z = measure o
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control and further diode developme
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An overview of solar thermochemical
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for electron and phonon band struct
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coefficient. The thermal conductivi
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J.J. Greffet, R. Carminati, K. Joul
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CROSS-CUTTING RESEARCH CHALLENGES B
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ange of time and length scales span
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Research Issues Advances in the syn
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Advances across several science fro
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Figure 19 Transparent conductive el
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Carrier generation, relaxation, and
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E. Hutter and J.H. Fendler, “Expl
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PRIORITY RESEARCH DIRECTIONS Revolu
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RESEARCH DIRECTIONS Several paths e
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Multiple Energy Level Solar Cells I
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Strain Relaxation. Growth of layers
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Page 114 and 115: A.J. Nozik, “Quantum Dot Solar Ce
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Page 118 and 119: Figure 30 Schematic diagram (right)
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Page 124 and 125: Figure 32 One important example of
Page 126 and 127: interface for charge separation. Fo
Page 128 and 129: • Light harvesting, • Advanced
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Page 132 and 133: Multicomponent structures are often
Page 134 and 135: REFERENCES A.J. Bard and M.A. Fox,
Page 136 and 137: PLANT PRODUCTIVITY AND BIOFUEL PROD
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Page 142 and 143: SUMMARY OF RESEARCH DIRECTION The k
Page 144 and 145: developing multi-electron catalytic
Page 146 and 147: coupling in multi-cofactor-containi
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Page 150 and 151: low toxicity, and processibility. T
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Page 154 and 155: largely unknown are the fundamental
Page 156 and 157: nanostructure design, and developme
Page 158 and 159: ealize an efficient artificial phot
Page 160 and 161: Figure 46 Defect-tolerant solar cel
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Page 166 and 167: the sequestration step, these solar
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Page 170 and 171: The continued advances in energy- a
Page 172 and 173: for the detailed understanding and
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Page 176 and 177: A shortcoming of this approach is t
Page 178 and 179: of ~2.4 at 300K and quantum-dot PbT
Page 180 and 181: High-throughput Experimental Screen
Page 182 and 183: Solar Concentrators and Hot Water H
Page 184 and 185: G. Chen, M.S. Dresselhaus, J.-P. Fl
Page 186 and 187: Materials and Processing Methods to
Page 188 and 189: materials and fabrication approache
Page 190 and 191: multi-electron H2O and CO2 activati
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Page 196 and 197: and quantum dots. Quantum dots are
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Page 202 and 203: Flux (mA/eV.cm2 Flux (mA/eV.cm ) 2
Page 204 and 205: Table 1 Worldwide PV Module Product
Page 206 and 207: Amorphous Silicon. From its discove
Page 208 and 209: Table 2 Are There Enough Materials
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R.R. King, C.M. Fetzer, K.M. Edmond
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currently accounting for only a sma
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Anaerobic Digestion One gasificatio
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Electrolysis is the process for bre
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alkaline electrolyzers require a mi
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maintenance costs of the small prod
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P. Courty, P. Chaumette, and C. Rai
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212
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periods and extend the system opera
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When ηopt < 1, Equation (2) become
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Receiver & Power Conversion Unit So
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Figure 77 General concept of solar-
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Other areas whose development could
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THERMOPHOTOVOLTAICS Thermophotovolt
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N. Benz and Th. Kuckelkorn, “A Ne
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R.A. Sherif, H.L. Cotal, R.R. King,
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Sub-panelists Edmond Amouyal, Centr
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Terry Tritt, Clemson University Joh
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Plenary Closing Session — Wednesd
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Panel 1C (Photoelectrochemistry)
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Agenda for Solar Fuels Breakout Ses
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Tuesday, April 19, 2005, 8:00 a.m.
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Wednesday, April 20, 2005, 8:00 a.m
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Wednesday, April 20, 2005, 8:00 a.m
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250
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R. Corkish, S. Kettemann, and J. Ne
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T. Polivka and V. Sundstrom, “Ult
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microscopy, 81, 85, 101, 155-157, 1
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