Basic Research Needs for Solar Energy Utilization - Office of ...
Basic Research Needs for Solar Energy Utilization - Office of ...
Basic Research Needs for Solar Energy Utilization - Office of ...
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Amorphous Silicon. From its discovery in the early 1970s, hydrogenated amorphous silicon (a-<br />
Si:H) has stimulated a large worldwide ef<strong>for</strong>t to develop various semiconductor device<br />
applications. The main advantage <strong>of</strong> a-Si:H <strong>for</strong> PV is the low materials and manufacturing costs.<br />
The films can be deposited on ordinary window glass, as well as on flexible substrates (stainless<br />
steel or polyimide), to make PV products such as flexible ro<strong>of</strong>ing shingles, semitransparent<br />
modules <strong>for</strong> windows or skylights, and portable power modules. The basic cell structure is a p-in<br />
structure, with an undoped (intrinsic) a-Si:H layer between two very thin doped layers. This<br />
structure produces an electric field throughout the cell to separate photogenerated electrons and<br />
holes and produce electricity. The main disadvantage <strong>of</strong> a-Si:H is the modest efficiency that has<br />
been achieved to date. Stable, small-area cell efficiencies reach 13%, but the best module<br />
efficiency is 10.2% (<strong>for</strong> 1,000-cm 2 area). Most a-Si:H power modules sold today have stable<br />
efficiencies <strong>of</strong> between 6% and 8%. The higher-efficiency designs use dual- or triple-junction<br />
cell structures to capture more <strong>of</strong> the available sunlight (the band gap <strong>of</strong> a-Si:H ranges from 1.6<br />
to 1.8 eV, depending primarily on hydrogen content). Bottom cells can be either lower-band-gap<br />
a-Si:H, a-SiGe:H, or microcrystalline silicon.<br />
The high absorption coefficient <strong>of</strong> a-Si:H stems from its lack <strong>of</strong> crystalline order. However, this<br />
same disorder limits cell efficiencies and results in a self-limiting degradation known as the<br />
Staebler-Wronski effect, or “light-induced instability.” No fundamental solution to this problem<br />
has yet been found, so solar cells are made with thin undoped layers to minimize this degradation<br />
in efficiency (about 15–25% decrease from the initial efficiency). Commercial products are<br />
stable after about one month <strong>of</strong> exposure to sunlight and are always rated at their ultimate<br />
(“stable”) efficiencies.<br />
Films <strong>of</strong> a-Si:H are made by chemical vapor deposition from SiH4 onto a 200–300°C substrate<br />
using a radio-frequency plasma (13.56 MHz) or dc plasma. Deposition rates are typically<br />
0.1-0.3 nm/s, meaning that a 0.6-μm-thick solar cell is deposited in less than one hour. Both<br />
batch deposition (typically <strong>for</strong> glass substrates) and roll-to-roll deposition (typically <strong>for</strong> flexible<br />
substrates) are used in production. The largest thin-film manufacturing facility today produces<br />
30 MW/yr <strong>of</strong> a-Si:H.<br />
Cadmium Telluride. One <strong>of</strong> the most promising approaches <strong>for</strong> the fabrication <strong>of</strong> low-cost, highefficiency<br />
solar cells is cadmium telluride (CdTe). This material has nearly the ideal band gap <strong>for</strong><br />
a single-junction device, and efficient solar cells have been made by a variety <strong>of</strong> potentially<br />
scalable and low-cost processes; these include close-spaced sublimation (CSS), high-rate<br />
physical vapor deposition, spraying or screen printing, solution growth, and electrodeposition.<br />
The record cell (Figure 66) is a 16.5%-efficient device, whereas the best commercial-size<br />
module is 11% efficient (typical commercial products are in the 7–9% range).<br />
Although concerns are <strong>of</strong>ten raised about the environmental, health, and safety aspects associated<br />
with cadmium and tellurium, advocates <strong>of</strong> this technology believe these are mainly issues <strong>of</strong><br />
“perception.” Extensive studies have been per<strong>for</strong>med concerning the manufacturing, deployment,<br />
and even decommissioning <strong>of</strong> CdTe modules. The results indicate that all safety issues can be<br />
handled at a very modest cost, including the recycling <strong>of</strong> cadmium and tellurium from old<br />
modules.<br />
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