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70 3 Mechanisms: reanalysis and analogy change, most particularly that it arises as a result of language acquisition by adults as well as children, and that it occurs because of abduction, the reasoning by which learners guess at systems. Much of the focus of this chapter, then, has been on perception. A dominant theme in work on grammaticalization since the 1970s has been the role of production in language change, most especially of ways in which speakers and hearers negotiate discourse strategies, and it is to this issue that we now turn.
4 Pragmatic factors 4.1 Introduction Although it is possible to describe change in terms of the operation of successive strategies of reanalysis (rule change) and analogy (rule generalization), the important question remains why these strategies come about - in other words, what enables the mechanisms we have outlined, most especially those involved in grammaticalization. 1 It is tempting to think in terms of "causes" and even of "explanations" in the sense of "predictions." However, the phenomena that give rise to language change are so complex that they will perhaps never be understood in enough detail for us to state precisely why a specific change occurred in the past or to predict when one will occur and if it does what it will be (Lass 1980). Rather than referring to "causes" or "explanations," we speak more cautiously of motivations or enabling factors, understanding always that we are referring to potential and statistically preferred, not absolute, factors (see, among many others, Greenberg 1978b; Romaine 1982; Croft 2000; Maslova 2000). As mentioned previously, among motivations for change three have been widely discussed in recent years. Of greatest interest within generative linguistics has been the role of language acquisition, especially child language acquisition. Sociolinguists, by contrast, have tended to focus attention on the role of communities and ditl'erent types of contact within them. Of special interest to those working on grammaticalization has been the role of speakers and hearers negotiating meaning in communicative situations. Here we put forward arguments for the view that there are a number of competing motivations which can all in some sense be said to be examples of maximization of economy or "simplicity": basically they can be summarized as maximization of efficiency via minimal differentiation on the one hand, and maximization of informativeness on the other. On this view, hearers play a major role in change because they process input in ways that may not match the speaker's intentions. But speakers also play a major role in enabling change, because in producing speech they have communication as their goal, and therefore are always in search of ways to guide the hearer in interpretation. In an ideal communicative situation,
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Grammaticalization Second Edition T
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Grammaticalization Second Edition P
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In memory of Dwight Bolinger 1907-1
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x Contents 3.3 Reanalysis 50 :'1.3.
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XII Contents 8.3 Implications of pi
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Tables ::1.1 Grammaticalization of
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xvi Preface and acknowledgments gra
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Abbreviations Linguistic terms ABL
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xx Abbreviations Srel relative clau
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2 I Some preliminaries recurring co
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4 J Some preliminaries 1.2 What is
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6 J Some preliminaries relationship
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8 I Some preliminaries tendencies.
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10 J Some preliminaries 1.3. 1 Lets
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12 J Some preliminaries form of us.
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14 I Some preLiminaries (23) Me-gbb
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16 1 Some preliminaries 1.4 Grammat
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18 I Some preliminaries same way. F
Page 38 and 39: 20 2 The history of grammaticalizat
Page 44 and 45: 26 2 The histOlY of gramm atica liz
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Page 56 and 57: 38 2 Th e history of grammaticaliza
Page 58 and 59: 40 3 Mechanisms: reanalysis and ana
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Page 78 and 79: 60 3 Mechanisms: reallalysis and an
Page 84 and 85: 66 3 Mechanisms: reanalysis an.d an
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Page 112 and 113: 94 4 Pragmatic factors 4.5 Pragmati
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Page 116 and 117: 98 4 Pragmatic fa ctors The process
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120 5 The hypothesis of unidirectio
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6 Clau se-internal morphological ch
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142 6 Clause-internal morphological
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146 6 CLause-internaL morphoLogical
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150 6 CLause-internaL morphoLogicaL
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174 6 Clause-internal 17lorphologic
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176 7 Grammaticalization across cla
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180 7 Grammaticalizatioll across cl
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210 7 GrammaticaLizatiolZ across cl
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8 Grammatica lization in situations
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214 8 Situations of extreme languag
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216 8 Situations 0/ extreme languag
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224 8 Situations of extreme Languag
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232 9 Summary alld suggestions fo r
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Notes Some preliminaries I. We foll
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236 Notes to pages 152-226 2. The d
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238 References the Linguistic Codin
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240 References Breal, Michel. 1991
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242 Refe rences Chafe, Wallace L. 1
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244 References Dietrich, W. 1973. D
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246 References Genetti, Carol 1991.
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248 Refe rences Halpern, Aaron. 199
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250 References Hopper, Paul. 1987.
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252 References Kemenade, Ans van. I
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254 References Lambrecht, Knud. 199
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256 References Los, Beuelou. 1999.
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258 References Ohori . Toshio, ed.
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260 References Sankoff, Gillian. 19
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262 References Ti mberlake. Alan. 1
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264 References Wi scher, lise, and
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266 Index a/ names Couper-Kuhlen. E
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268 Index a/ names Meillet, Antoine
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Index of languages Akkadian 190. 19
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General index abduction 41-3, 72, 7
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274 General index grammatical word
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276 General index universals 17, 27
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