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Figure 2.14: Integrated Structural Health Monitoring Approach (Herszberg et al., 2007) In the context of composite repair, the SHM definition should not be driven by the process of implementing a damage detection strategy as is done on aerospace, civil and mechanical engineering infrastructures. But it should be driven by the process of ensuring the reliability of the repair instead, where attempts are made to measure the inputs to and responses of a structure after damage has been repaired so that the regression analysis can be used to predict future damage or deterioration (often due to poor installation, materials etc.) in the structural condition. Coupled with the installation of sensors and numerical modelling, the remaining useful life of the system can then be assured. Therefore, the following literature review provides an insight into the selection of the most suitable and practical sensor to be used in the composite repair. The aims, implementations, limitations and benefits of SHM will also be addressed. However, the discussion is limited to sensing structural responses only and is confined to strain and temperature. Other elements of data acquisition and signal processing such as excitation methods and data transmission are not discussed in this chapter but will be explained in a later chapter. 36
2.6.2 Aims of Structural Health Monitoring (SHM) The main aims of SHM are to maximise the life structure, reducing whole life cost by reducing the number of scheduled non-destructive examination (NDE) services, and providing additional safety measures as explained by Fixter and Williamson (2006). These aims are further discussed in their comprehensive report in a state of the art review on SHM which looks at the current status of optical fibre and electrical technologies with the main interest being on those sensors that are applied to composite structures. Sohn et al. (2003) also provide a comprehensive review of the technical literature on SHM with similar aims. 2.6.3 Optical Fibre Sensor (OFS) Inaudi and Glisic (2005) discuss distributed fibre optic sensing as one of the most effective SHM techniques since it is able to measure temperatures and strain at thousands of points along a single fibre in the monitoring of large structures such as pipelines, oil wells etc. The sensing system is based on Brillouin and Raman Scattering works with three cable designs for high temperature sensing, strain sensing (called SMARTape) as shown in Figure 2.15, and combined strain and temperature monitoring (called SMARTProfile). Figure 2.15: Graph of the sensing SMARTape (Left), SMARTape on the gas pipeline (Right) (Inaudi and Glisic, 2005) 37
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CRANFIELD UNIVERSITY MAHADI ABD MUR
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ABSTRACT One of the most common pro
Page 7 and 8: TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT ........
Page 9 and 10: 3.7.1 Introduction ................
Page 11: 5.6 Summary and Conclusions .......
Page 14 and 15: Figure 3.1: Schematic diagram of th
Page 16 and 17: Figure 5.4: The average temperature
Page 18 and 19: NOMENCLATURES ACFM Alternating Curr
Page 21 and 22: 1 INTRODUCTION One of the most comm
Page 23 and 24: 1.1 Objectives Knowing this backgro
Page 25 and 26: The methodology of this integrated
Page 27 and 28: Chapter 6 contains the summary and
Page 29 and 30: period of the major part of the exi
Page 31 and 32: Figure 2.2: Reported interest in de
Page 33 and 34: Figure 2.4: Dent damage caused by v
Page 35 and 36: presented current practices, recent
Page 37 and 38: Energy Workforce Sdn Bhd (2011) cla
Page 39 and 40: available provides real time detect
Page 41 and 42: 2.3.3 Reliability Analysis of Infor
Page 43 and 44: Figure 2.9: Pipeline failure probab
Page 45 and 46: 2.3.3.1 NDT Reliability and POD cur
Page 47 and 48: increase in the yield limit of stee
Page 49 and 50: the SCC assessment in their integri
Page 51 and 52: Manufacturers such as Walkers Techn
Page 53 and 54: Company L.P, 2005); Aquawrap ® pro
Page 55: monitoring, inspection, and damage
Page 59 and 60: Figure 2.16: Application fields and
Page 61 and 62: egistered by the piezoelectric sens
Page 63 and 64: discretization error. Round-off err
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Page 67 and 68: maximum local stress at discontinui
Page 69 and 70: De Carvalho (2005) concludes that t
Page 71 and 72: accurate simulation of loading espe
Page 73 and 74: Based on the above facts, the opera
Page 75 and 76: 3 FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS (FEA) IN
Page 77 and 78: Figure 3.2: Schematic diagram of th
Page 79 and 80: In this modelling work (i.e. compos
Page 81 and 82: This partition toolset also helps u
Page 83 and 84: Figure 3.6: Mesh control using Swee
Page 85 and 86: Figure 3.7: Schematic representatio
Page 87 and 88: discretization. Therefore, in this
Page 89 and 90: According to Staten et al. (2010b),
Page 91 and 92: 3.5 The influence of pressure on th
Page 93 and 94: each pressure value remains constan
Page 95 and 96: Axial Stress, σa (S22) was referre
Page 97 and 98: Figure 3.14 shows a graph of analyt
Page 99 and 100: the notch defect is found to be in
Page 101 and 102: One of the contributions of this st
Page 103 and 104: Table 3.4: Convergence tests on var
Page 105 and 106: Figures 3.16 and 3.17 show that the
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Figure 3.20 shows that as the relat
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3.7.4 Concluding Remarks A biaxial
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yarns change and lateral contact be
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For predicting E2 and Gl2, a number
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Where: Ar = weight of one sheet of
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Where; The Stiffness matrix is trad
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simulations for the hoop strain at
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Figure 3.24: Finding the hoop stres
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Table 3.8: The effect of repair len
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four up to 18 layers. In this study
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hoop and axial stress concentration
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Table 3.11: Predicted Elastic Const
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Table 3.13: Axial Stress v/s L/W ra
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Hoop Stress (MPa) Figure 3.3: Hoop
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However, Frost (2008) and Alexander
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Table 3.17: Ratio of Axial Stress N
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axial load (e.g. buried pipelines t
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3.10 Numerical Strain Analysis of C
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Figure 3.36 shows the contours befo
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Stress Concentration Factor 2 1.8 1
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In fact, for Notch 40 with 18 plies
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this second approach (i.e. the expe
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4.2.2 Strain Gauge Selection and Cr
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Finally, a method used to calculate
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Where, and are the maximum and mini
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should be between 20 and 28 bar and
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welded weld neck flange at both end
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Figure 4.7: Sensor and heating elem
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Figure 4.9: A summary of data acqui
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One of the objectives of doing this
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Figure 4.14: A schematic diagram of
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Table 4.1: Strain gauge readings at
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microstrain 3.00E-04 2.50E-04 2.00E
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However, the axial load transfer is
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Mircostrain 500 450 400 350 300 250
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Since the defect is not a flat notc
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Again, the epoxy resin plays a sign
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Table 4.4: Study at the defect area
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Mircostrain 300 250 200 150 100 50
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Mircostrain 600 500 400 300 200 100
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14.25% in hoop strain and 23.5% in
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consideration for the selection of
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5.4 Methodology of Thermal Expansio
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Figure 5.1: Some preventive measure
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5.4.1 The Fundamentals of the Therm
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5.5 Analysis of Results 5.5.1 The t
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Thermal Output (strain ) 0.0002 0.0
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(Strain ,ε) Figure 5.12: Coefficie
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(Strain ,ε) 0.0002 0.00018 0.00016
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Table 5.1: The strain readings afte
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maximum shear strain increase as th
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The above results show that shear s
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shear strains becomes more stable a
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for future safe design and operatio
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has been fully cured. Poor surface
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6.3 Primary PhD Achievements The ea
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In Chapter 5, the CTE was determine
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ASM International (2002), "Thermal
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Bucinell, R. B. (2001), Calculating
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Proceedings of OMAE'01 20th Interna
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Greenwood, R. (2002), UKOPA Pipelin
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Kotrechko, S. A., Krasovskii, A. Y.
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Mousavi, S. E., Xiao, H. and Sukuma
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Raju, I. S. and Newman, J. C. (1986
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Tennyson, R. C. and Mufti, A. A. (2
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Xue, L., Widera, G. E. O. and Sang,
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General Technical Specifications: T
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Photos of the Design and Build of t
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Composite Installation Process usin
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APPENDIX 3 - STRAIN GAUGE INSTALLAT
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Figure 7: Mylar tape was stuck onto
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Figure 19: Repeating the above proc
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2) Electrical Insulation Test Resul
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