Preventive Action for Refugee Producing Situations

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172 Chapter 4 Brian Urquhart advanced recently some innovative suggestions to address funding problems. They are: - Shift peace-keeping costs to defense budgets - Introduce a sort of "levy" on private companies, especially in the filed of shipping or air transport, since they are clearly benefitting from peace-keeping activities, and - Impose a 1% "tax" on all international arms transactions. 393 In fact the Italian Government has already introduced a new mechanism in this regard. By law 180 (6 Febraury 1992), it has established that in order to finance Italy's participation in "peace and humanitarian initiatives in the international field" it is possible to deploy not only funds appropriated "ad hoc", but also up to 1% of the funds allotted for development assistance (if such initiative relate to developing countries). 394 On 13 May 1992, Secretary General Boutros Boutros-Ghali delivered a lecture in Washington where he also addressed the funding problem of peacekeeping. He stated, given the political will, the funding problems could be easily resolved and suggested the following four steps: 1. A revolving capital fund would be established to finance the start-up cost of peace-keeping operations; the Secretary-General, p. 2. 393 Speech to the "Cosmopolitan Club", New York City, February 1992. In New York Review of Books, April 9, 1992, p. 42. Cited by Roberto Toscano. Address on "Peace-keeping in the New International Situation" at the International Symposium Prospects of Reform of the United Nations System, Rome, May 1992, p. 23. 394 Law 180 mentions specifically the supply of goods, services and financial contributions to "international organizations, foreign countries, Italian and foreign private and public entities having as a goal the maintenance of peace and international security, as well as initiative in the humanitarian field and with the goal of protecting human rights". Given Italy's very substantial effort in the field of development assistance to LDC's, Italian participation in peace-keeping efforts in the third world is not likely to run the risk of being inadequately funded. It would be an important step if other countries would make such budgetary arrangements to solidify the linkage between peace and development. The meaning of the linkage is twofold: "there is no peace without development", but also "development assistance is useless unless there is peace". See in Roberte Toscano's address on "Peacekeeping in the New International Situation" at the International Symposium on Prospects of Reform of the United Nations System, in Rome, April/May 1992, p.24/25. New Approaches and Policies 173 2. As soon as the Security Council decided to set up a new operation, the Member States would be asked to pay immediately one third of the established cost of its first year and the Secretary-General would be automatically given the authority to commit up to this sum; 3. A reserve stock of basic peace-keeping equipment would be established so that some of the most needed items were always available; 4. Member States would pay their assessments, both for the initial one third and for the full budget, fully and on time. 395 Mr. Boutros Boutros-Ghali, looking at the costs of peace-keeping, reiterated at this occasion his belief that even the UN calculated estimated amount of $2.7 billion for this exceptional year is not high in relation to the costs of the alternative, namely, continued conflict. On the same occasion, he said that one only needs to recall the astonishing sums of money that were spent to 'win' the cold war - in the 1980s global expenditures on arms approached $1 trillion per year, or $2 million per minute - to acknowledge that peace-keeping is an inexpensive way to help maintain stability in the post-cold-war-era. Aware that the current volume of peace-keeping expenses is creating real problems for Member States, the Secretary-General has started to review existing operations for identifying possible areas of saving without affecting their effectiveness. In considering cost and effectiveness, it is also encouraging to see that of the 13 operations established since 1988, six have already completed their mandate. These include two in Africa, in Namibia (UNTAG), where 46 000 refugees could start to live afresh through UNHCR's support, and where free and fair elections were successfully carried out in November 1989 under UN supervision; and in Angola (UNAVEM I), where from 1989 to 1991, the UN military observers monitored and verified the withdrawal of Cuban troops. In the Middle East, the Military Observer Group (UNIIMOG) that monitored the implementation of the cease-fire between Iran and Iraq following their eight-year war, withdrew with the agreement of both parties in 1991. In Central America (ONUCA), observers monitored the cease-fire in Nicaragua, helped to verify the cessation of aid to irregular forces in the region; and assisted in the voluntary demobilization of the Nicaraguan resistance. They were withdrawn in January 1992. In Cambodia, following the signing of the Paris peace accords in October 1991, an ___________________________ 395 SG/SM/4748,13 May 1992. Secretary-General Delivers Ninth David M. Abshire Lecture, "From Peace-keeping to Peace-building ” , Press Release, United Nations, New York, p. 7.
174 Chapter 4 advance mission of military observers (UNAMIC) paved the way for the arrival of UNTAC, which started operating last March. 396 The agenda of the Secretary General mentioned before addressed the questions of financing and suggested measures for peace and preventive diplomacy. In concluding this chapter on peace-keeping and peace-making, on peace-enforcement and peace-building, and considering the significant problems that existed, peace-keeping has been, overall, a significant success for the United Nations. The success, however, has not been uniform, especially when peace-making has not kept the pace with peacekeeping. In addition, there was a human cost. 812 men and women from 43 countries have died while in service of the UN peace-keeping forces, which should never be forgotten. 397 Looking into the future, the Secretary-General said that others might also be able to undertake peace-keeping operations. In fact, regional organizations have carried out some operations in the 1960s and the 1970s, of which the most successful was an Arab League force deployed between Iraq and Kuwait from 1961 to 1963. On the basis of a resolution adopted by the Organization of American States (OAS), an Inter- American Peace Force operated in the Dominican Republic from 1965 to 1966. In 1979, Egypt, in cooperation with the USA, organized a Multilateral Force and Observers in the Sinai to help implement the peace treaty with Israel. It is interesting to note that this latter force was established only after a request for a UN peace-keeping operation was rejected (by the Soviets, on behalf of the Arab Member States). 398 The UN is no doubt the most experienced peace-keeper. The demands have, however, grown to such an extent that time seems to have come to share this responsibility. The decentralization of peace-keeping and peace-making would be in tune with the radically new international environment of a multi-polar world that should be led by a multiplicity of institutions. Therefore, the regional organizations are obvious candidates for assuming larger responsibilities. Chapter VIE of the Charter, specifically provides for regional organizations to "make every effort to achieve pacific settlement of local disputes ... before referring them to the Security Council". _____________________________ 396 Ibid, p. 8,9. 397 SG/SM/4748, 13 May 1992. Secretary-General Delivers Ninth Annual David M. Abshire Lecture, Trom Peace-Keeping to Peace-Building', p.5. 398 SG/SM/4748, 13 May 1992. Secretary-General Delivers Ninth Annual David M. Abshire Lecture, "From Peace-Keeping to Peace-Building 1 , p.5. New Approaches and Policies 175 The problem is, however, that regional oranizations have almost no experience and lack the necessary structure and procedures, and more importantly, most of them are in an even worse financial situation than the United Nations. In his address on peace-keeping on 13 May 1992 in Washington, the Secretary-General expressed his belief that regional organizations must help to carry a larger share in this task. He insisted on a clear division of labor in Yugoslavia, between the European Community, which has for sometime been engaged there both in peace-making and peace-keeping, and the United Nations, which is responsible only for peace-keeping in certain areas. He said also to have offered to help the CSCE to obtain some technical advice with regard to its own peace-keeping efforts in the dispute between Azerbaijan and Armenia over Nagorno-Karabakh. In addition, in setting up the most recent efforts in Somalia, the Secretary-General associated the Organization of African Unity (OAU), the Arab League and the Organization of the Islamic Conference. In this most recent operation there is an interesting innovation. In recognition of the important role non-governmental organizations can play in new and broader peace-keeping operations, and after having been involved for many years in their humanitarian aspects, the latest Security Council resolution on Somalia acknowledges that much of the relief work to be protected by the UN military personnel, will be carried out by nongovernmental organizations. 399 The 1992 Agenda for Peace of the Secretary-General places its policy recommendations in the changing international context and outlines plans and actions after an intensive consultative process both witin the UN Secretariat's special task force for this purpose and outside, namely interested governments and organizations. Considerations and suggestions include measures to build confidence, fact-finding, early warning, preventive deployment, demilitarized zones. In the area of peacemaking the Agenda proposes states to accept jurisdiction of the International Court of Justice, amelioration through assistance, sanction in special economic problems, use of military force and Peace- Enforcement-Units. In the area of peace-keeping the agenda looked at the increasing demands, considered new departures in peace-keeping, personnel and logistics. For post-conflict peace building it examined cooperation with regional organizations and arrangements, safety of personnel and financing. This document gives a fresh basis to embark on ________________________ 399 Ibid, p. 6.
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Luise Drüke Preventive Action for
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European University Studies Europä
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Foreword It is a pleasure to welcom
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10 office. The Under Secretary-Gene
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50 Chapter 2 In 1981, the U.N. Comm
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66 Chapter 2 UNHCR to provide detai
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Page 118 and 119: 230 REFUGIADOS BA.JO MANDATO DEL AC
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Page 127 and 128: 244 Appendices Interviews conducted
Page 129 and 130: 248 Appendices UN UN tumees, wherec
Page 131 and 132: 252 Selected Bibliography San Remo:
Page 133 and 134: 256 Selected Bibliography Selected
Page 135 and 136: 260 Selected Bibliography MORRIS, G
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268 Selected Bibliography .........
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272 Selected Bibliography -—----
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This book provides an empirical ana
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