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effort to be controlled through restrictions on the number of operations and the amount and type of activity undertaken by each commercial operator. The regulations also list general operating conditions for commercial operators or any other member of the public when in the vicinity of marine mammals. These regulations pertain primarily to approach speeds, minimum distance (50 m) and orientation of approach. No more than three vessels are permitted within a 300 m radius of whales and whales with calves are not to be approached closer than 200 m by any vessel. Species specific regulations are listed relating to approaching sperm whales. The regulations are used to manage the effort expended on whale watching. An example of this is at Kaikoura where, despite numerous applications, no further permits have been granted since 1989 and the current operators have not been allowed to increase their number of trips. Overall a trend towards larger, quieter vessels has been employed in this whale watching industry. The whale watching industry at Kaikoura is considered to be a model example of a successful community development initiative. With the attraction of whale watching and government support, the Maori people of Kaikoura transformed their small, impoverished village into a highly successful, internationally acclaimed tourist destination. The empowerment and socio-economic upliftment has transformed this Maori community, and more importantly, by means of a sustainable resource (whales) that has always played a significant role in the Maori culture. The early introduction of strict regulations on this industry have thus far, allowed sustainable growth of the industry, however, the increasing pressure and demand for whale watching encounters at Kaikoura means that the town faces a difficult decision as to whether to expand further and possibly lose the aspect that originally made it a successful tourism destination or limit further growth and also possibly lose attractiveness to the tourist market. Although New Zealand’s permit based system has helped to control the number of boats on the water and thus protect the resource, many argue that there are already too many permits in some areas and not sufficient in others. Nonetheless whale and dolphin watching continues to flourish in New Zealand and there is outstanding potential for growth and associated improvements in the socio-economic sphere. 11.3.3 Tonga In 1994 the first whale watching enterprise in the Kingdom of Tonga was established around the Vava’u island group in the South Pacific Ocean. This area has been known to be an important breeding area for humpback whales for centuries, however, due to the whaling industry in New Zealand in the early 1900’s, the populations occurring here are considered to be endangered and only a fraction of their original numbers (Orams 2002). Nonetheless the Vava’u islands are developing a growing reputation as an international whale watching destination. The total number of whale watchers recorded in Vava’u islands in 1998 was 2334, yielding a total expenditure of US$422 000, which contributes a considerable amount of income to the tiny group of islands. Five main operators offer whale watch tours and these companies are starting to invest in larger vessels with stable platforms, hydrophones (for listening to whale sounds), toilets and seating onboard. The fairly new whale watching industry is however, threatened by the recent consideration of the Tonga government to return to hunting whales. The majority of visitors to Tonga are typically well educated, from upper socio-economic groups and strongly conservation minded. A study conducted by Orams (2002) shows that current visitors to Tonga are opposed to any resumption of whaling practices and that should this occur, it would likely displace the majority of tourists from the area. Although whales are not officially protected in Tonga, the Government of Tonga, in partnership with the whale watch operators, have established a set of guidelines for viewing whales. These guidelines are similar to those developed for many other countries and include, inter alia, a minimum distance of 100 m to be kept from whales at all times, a 300 m caution zone with no more than one vessel in this zone at a time, a speed of 4 knots and human-powered paddle craft not permitted closer than 75 m from a whale. Although already well established as a whale watching location, by global standards the industry in Vava’u can be considered to be in its infancy. There is considered to be outstanding potential for further development and growth in the whale watching industry in Tonga, much of this depends on the government’s decision whether to resume whaling or not. There is some pressure from the World Council of Whalers and some local Tongans to return to whaling. A study conducted by Orams 85
(2002) has shown that humpback whales may be worth in excess of U$700 000 annually as a tourist attraction and that there is significant potential for growth in this industry. 11.3.4 Antarctica Whale watching tours to Antarctica have dated as far back as 1957, but whale watching has only featured prominently since the 1980’s. In 1998 it was estimated that Antarctica had 2503 whale watchers contributing U$16 million in total expenditure. The total expenditure is considered to be disproportionately high to the low numbers of whale watchers because much of the whale watching activity is in conjunction with cruise ships. which have an associated high overall expenditure. As many as 18 companies use up to 15 cruise ships for tours through Antarctica, although none of these tours are dedicated whale watching tours. However, whale watching is strongly promoted and many ships carry accomplished whale watch guides. Inflatable zodiac boats are frequently used to view whales from closer quarters than the cruise ships are permitted. Regulations of nation states controlling different zones probably apply. There is still considered to be moderate potential for further development of whale watching in Antarctica, although the capacity for tourism to this area is still under contention and further impact studies are urgently needed. 11.4 Europe 11.4.1 Norway Norway began whale watching in 1988 and by 1998 had an estimated 22 380 whale watchers contributing a total expenditure of U$12 million annually. Whale watching predominantly occurs in two areas of Norway, namely Andenes where one operator is based and Tysfjord where another eight operators are based. There appear to be no written rules or regulations governing whale watching in Norway, however, Andenes has developed a general code of conduct for whale watching. Although Norway remains one of the few whaling nations of the world, there exists outstanding potential to develop whale watching in the northern areas, especially Andenes and Tysfjord. There is a strong emphasis on education and scientific work with researchers often serving as tour guides in exchange for data. Whale watching in Norway grew by 18.8% between 1994 and 1998 and is expected to continue at a similar growth rate in the near future. 11.4.2 Iceland Whale watching in Iceland originated in 1991 and foreigners (mainly Germany, USA and Denmark) contribute 90% of the whale watchers in Iceland. In 1999 it was reported that Iceland hosted 35 250 whale watchers, facilitated by 10 whale watching operators. The trips are mainly day trips aboard traditional and modern fishing vessels, although at Stykkisholmur, two large catamarans provide comfortable whale watching from large platforms. The whale watching trips in Iceland are the most reliable in the world to see blue whales with a 100% success rate in June and July during 1998 and 1999. Since 1994 whale watching numbers in Iceland have shown an average increase of 251% per year, which is the second highest increase rate in the world since the mid-1990’s. Hùsavík, in the northern region of Iceland, is host to the largest whale watching community in the country and with the opening of the Hùsavík Whale Centre in 1998 and the Hùsavík whale watch festival, has created a target market for tourists wanting to experience whale watching in Iceland. The Hùsavík Whale Centre, promoting education and research of marine mammals, have a set of guidelines for whale watching which includes, inter alia, a minimum distance of 50 m to be maintained at all times between a boat and whale. The guidelines are not as restrictive as those in some other countries and rely on good ethics on the part of the operator to implement good practice. There is continuing debate over whether to resume whaling in Iceland, which will obviously have negative impacts on the whale watching industry. Although the issue of whether to resume whaling or 86
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BOAT-BASED WHALE WATCHING IN SOUTH
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owners, who felt that a smaller, fa
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TABLE OF CONTENTS 1. INTRODUCTION..
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1. INTRODUCTION The whale watching
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the main whale watching season. All
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3. WHALE WATCHING: AN INTERNATIONAL
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location. Most cetaceans spend the
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3.2 South Africa in perspective Boa
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Table 3.3 excludes countries where
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west coast up to February or March
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The designated areas also include a
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5. PERMIT-HOLDER CHARACTERISTICS, S
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The majority of permitted operators
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Two very large boats excluded, a ty
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November. This is probably due to a
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holder, with a total of just over 3
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Based on rack rates and the estimat
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5.12 What determines success Based
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impact along the Garden Route, anot
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100% 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20
Page 44 and 45: 6.2 Western Cape The Western Cape P
Page 46 and 47: Equipment and infrastructure The fu
Page 48 and 49: around 30 to 35 passengers were per
Page 50 and 51: advertising material which offered
Page 52 and 53: generally variable in their length,
Page 54 and 55: Non-permitted activity One dedicate
Page 56 and 57: Equipment, trip characteristics and
Page 58 and 59: 6.4 KwaZulu-Natal KwaZulu-Natal cur
Page 60 and 61: visitors can be accommodated before
Page 62 and 63: Run on its way past Durban. Trips w
Page 64 and 65: Operators in Area 25 also offered d
Page 66 and 67: 6.5 Summary of legal and illegal ac
Page 68 and 69: 7. FUTURE POTENTIAL OF THE INDUSTRY
Page 70 and 71: Overall demand is heavily influence
Page 72 and 73: The most important enabling criteri
Page 74 and 75: The Cape Metro area is a major tour
Page 76 and 77: focused on harbour trips and until
Page 78 and 79: Wetland Park, Pondoland, the Greate
Page 80 and 81: 8.3 The permit system, conditions a
Page 82 and 83: Monitoring will also be vital for e
Page 84 and 85: 15. Data collected by operators and
Page 86 and 87: Woods-Ballard, A.J., Parsons, E.C.M
Page 88 and 89: 11. APPENDIX 2. SUMMARY OF COMMERCI
Page 90 and 91: used for whale watching must be acc
Page 92 and 93: Both the National and state governm
Page 96 and 97: not is broached several times each
Page 98 and 99: 11.5 South America 11.5.1 Ecuador T
Page 100 and 101: The Dominican Republic has strict c
Page 102 and 103: 12. APPENDIX 3: NOTIFICATION OF PER
Page 104 and 105: 4. Applicants must be willing to si
Page 106 and 107: SIMONSTOWN AREA Cape Point Lighthou
Page 108 and 109: PLETTENBERG BAY AREA The Western Bo
Page 110 and 111: (iii) the extent to which the appli
Page 112 and 113: Table I. Rating of the whale resour
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