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Papua New Guinea The case of Papua New Guinea (PNG) is important in any discussion on the use of local languages in education. No other country in the Asia-Pacific region uses local languages as widely as PNG, and thus, this case is briefly discussed here, as well. About 850 languages are spoken in PNG, more than in any other nation. Yet, Papua New Guinea is providing pre-school and Grade 1 and 2 education in some 350-435 languages (Guy 2003; Kaplan & Baldauf 2003; Klaus 2003a, 2003b; Leclerc 2004h; Litteral 1999; Malone 2003; Nagai 1998, 1999a, 1999b; 2001; Siegel 1997). A nationwide non-formal education movement in the 1980s initiated the use of local languages in education. The massive endeavour of developing these previously unwritten languages had to take place. Various NFE programmes, mainly in pre-primary and adult education, introduced hundreds of local languages as the media of instruction all over the country. These NFE endeavours are considered very successful. Based on positive experiences from the NFE sector, a reform of the English-only formal education system has been undertaken since the early 1990s. In the new system, the first three years of formal education is taught in the learners’ mother tongue. English becomes the medium at later grades, making it possible to use centrally produced materials throughout the country. Mother-tongue education is provided in elementary schools run by local communities (Kaplan & Baldauf 2003; Klaus 2003a, 2003b; Leclerc 2004h; Litteral 1999; Nagai 2001; Siegel 1997). Some reasons for the success of the PNG experience include: strong support and contribution of local communities, decentralised planning and implementation of education programmes, local relevance and cost-effectiveness in curriculum development and materials production, and the active role of NGOs in the delivery of mother-tongue education. In addition, the role of non-formal education has been crucial in reforming the formal system (Klaus 2003a, 2003b; Siegel 1997, 220-221). Klaus (2003a, 110) concludes his discussion of the PNG situation with the following words: “The case of Papua New Guinea is compelling: a small, poor country with more languages than any other country of the world appears to be successfully implementing a reform which (1) uses a multiplicity of languages, (2) conserves local cultures, (3) results in superior pedagogical outcomes, including better acquisition of a language of wider communication, and (4) is financially sustainable. Other countries may wish to consider how they might adapt Papua New Guinea’s solutions to their own unique problems and opportunities.” 3. Comparison of the National Situations This section attempts to provide a regional synthesis of the national situations in terms of language use in basic education. Various South-East Asian situations are compared regarding different issues of language and education. Language of Instruction Practice Table 1 provides a regional overview on the use of local languages in basic education. The first column of the table shows that in most countries, local languages are used, at least to some extent. 110
Notes to Table 1: 1 ‘Local languages used in education’ states whether local languages or languages of wider communication (LWC) (i.e. other than national or official language) are used in education practice at any level or in any system of basic education (such as pre-primary, primary or lower secondary education, formal or non-formal system, run by the government or other stakeholders, such as local communities, NGOs etc.). Yes means that both instruction and some learning materials are in local languages. Therefore, situations in which teachers use a local language or a LWC orally in addition to the official language of instruction are not included here. 2 ‘Local languages used as media of instruction’ refers to a situation in which local languages are used as the actual media of instruction at any level or system of basic education. Yes in bold means that local languages are used only in non-formal education by NGOs. 3 ‘Multiple languages in government system of education’ refers to a situation in which more than one language is used in the government system of education (either formal or non-formal at any level of basic education as stated above). Thus, private formal schools or education projects by non-governmental organizations are not included in this column. Yes in bold means that despite more than one language being used, local languages as such are not. 4 ‘Languages used in the government system of education’ lists the names of the languages used in the government system. Details of other languages are given in each country case. LWC = language of wider communication, local language, see definitions in Appendix 1. 5 ‘Access to education in L1 (percent)’ refers to the estimated percentage of a nation’s total population having access to education in learners’ first language (L1). The criterion is linguistic, i.e. the proportion of population speaking as the mother tongue one of the languages used in education. Source: Walter (2004). Cambodian, Lao and Thai situations estimated by the author on the basis of data from Chazée (1999), Grimes (2000), Kingsada (2003), National Statistical Centre (1997), Schliesinger (2000, 2003), and Smalley (1994). 6 7 Table 1. Local Language Use in Basic Education for China and South-East Asia Country Local Multiple Languages Local languages languages in used in the Access to Total number languages used as government government education in of languages used in education 1 media of system of system of L1 (percent) 5 spoken 6 instruction 2 education 3 education 4 Mandarin, China Yes Yes Yes LWCs, local 69 201 languages Brunei No No Yes Malay, English 2 17 Cambodia Yes Yes Yes Khmer, local languages 90 19 Indonesia Yes No Yes Indonesian, LWCs 10 726 Lao PDR No No No Lao < 50 7 82 Malaysia Yes No Yes Malay, English Mandarin, Tamil, Telugu, Punjabi, 45 139 local languages Myanmar Yes Yes No Myanma 61 107 Philippines Yes Yes Yes Filipino, English, LWCs 26 169 English, Singapore No No Yes Mandarin, 33 21 Malay, Tamil Thailand Yes Yes Yes Thai, local languages < 50 75 Viet Nam Yes Yes Yes Vietnamese, local languages 91 93 ‘Total number of languages’ spoken in a given country. Source: Grimes (2000). Chazée (1999, 7, 14) claims that only about 35% of the population of Lao PDR are Tai Lao (also called Lao Loum or Lowland Lao). He maintains that other ethnic groups related to the Lao are included in higher figures of Lao population. However, there are no data on whether other Tai groups speak Lao as their mother tongue or not. 111
Page 1 and 2: Myanmar More than 100 languages are
Page 3 and 4: efforts by non-governmental organiz
Page 5 and 6: tongue. Regional LWCs, as well as l
Page 7 and 8: Singapore More than 20 languages ar
Page 9: and Dong instruction continues thro
Page 13 and 14: Table 3 uses the same data as the f
Page 15 and 16: Linguistic Diversity in South-East
Page 17 and 18: determined in successful programmes
Page 19 and 20: Acknowledgements Many thanks to the
Page 21 and 22: Chazée, L. (1999) The Peoples of L
Page 23 and 24: Hornberger, N.H. and López, L.E. (
Page 25 and 26: Leclerc, J. (2004c) “Cambodge,”
Page 27 and 28: Nagai, Y. (2001) “Vernacular Educ
Page 29 and 30: Schliesinger, J. (1998) Hill Tribes
Page 31 and 32: UNESCO. (1953) The Use of Vernacula
Page 33 and 34: APPENDIX 1 Essential Concepts Used
Page 35 and 36: COUNTRY REPORTS Synthesis of Report
Page 37 and 38: Community consultation and decision
Page 39 and 40: a significant number of minority gr
Page 41 and 42: Representation in elected bodies Ea
Page 43 and 44: e able to absorb much more of the r
Page 45 and 46: • Explore the viability of the pr
Page 47 and 48: Contact with local stakeholders The
Page 49 and 50: Major Project Activities Staff Recr
Page 51 and 52: Present Status of the Action Resear
Page 53 and 54: China Bilingual Literacy Project fo
Page 55 and 56: population distribution, economic d
Page 57 and 58: Based on the results of field surve
Page 59 and 60: The target communities and their la
Page 61 and 62:
have difficulties when they use Chi
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- learners will be able to read sim
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For both communities, the director
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9. Challenges and Strategies for th
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ix) Environment: The pressure on th
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Figure 1. Background of Project Sit
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upgraded into a district, and North
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literacy, this project was targeted
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manuscripts on various issues. The
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Bilingual materials were produced (
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Policy and expansion of the project
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• Establishment/strengthening of
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• Programme implementers must str
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Health and Personal Hygiene: Malari
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- Waste management - Caring for wat
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presentation of the materials. This
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Comments HALAMANG GAMOT • The mod
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The following are among the challen
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Thai people so that they will be ab
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2002 statistics from the Ministry o
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King - which was operating in 18 pr
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Concerning strengths, the following
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Background information on the proje
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Pwo Karen. Three NFE Pwo Karen teac
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Process of a Writer Workshop The ou
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youth should be encouraged to work
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Distribution: Limited UNESCO-APPEAL
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1645-1715 Orientation to the Field
Page 117 and 118:
Distribution: Limited UNESCO-APPEAL
Page 119 and 120:
No. Country Name Position, Organiza
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