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5. Conclusions In all South-East Asian countries except Brunei Darussalam, Lao PDR and Singapore, local languages are used in education at least to some extent. Brunei and Singapore use several languages as the media of instruction in the government education system, whereas Lao PDR uses only the national language. However, it can be assumed that local languages are used orally also in these countries. In Myanmar, only the non-governmental sector provides local language education, and only in non-formal education. The use of local languages in Cambodia and Thailand is still at the beginning stages in some pilot projects. In Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines and Viet Nam, local languages are being used in various ways, but only in a few cases as the medium of instruction. Research and practical experiences from around the world demonstrate that the use of local languages in education is feasible. Curriculum development and materials production in local languages can be cost-effective. Innovative teaching and learning practises, and the use of native speakers of local languages as teachers, can help alleviate challenges that may seem to hinder the provision of education in the mother tongue. Local language education can be provided in ways that are not necessarily much more expensive than other basic education, particularly if education provided also reduces minority student retention and attrition rates (CAL 2001; Dutcher & Tucker 1996; Klaus 2003a, 2003b; Litteral 1999; Obanya 1999; Patrinos & Velez 1996; Tucker 1998). This is an extremely important point, as a common argument against bilingual and multilingual education is its assumed costliness. Furthermore, there is sufficient evidence to prove that all languages can be written, and consequently used, in education. Numerous cases from South-East Asia and around the world demonstrate that collaboration of local communities and linguists can produce viable writing systems for previously unwritten languages, or further develop languages that already have tentative writing systems. The use of newly written languages in education, however, usually requires also the contribution of education specialists. The initial language development of a previously unwritten language can be expensive, but cooperation between local communities, academics, NGOs, civil society organizations, various donor agencies, as well as national governments, enable this to happen even in small language communities. Language development can be economically viable through cooperation (e.g. Klaus 2003a, 2003b; Litteral 1999; Robinson 1999; UNESCO 2003b). The principle of collaboration applies to all parts of local language education. Most members of ethnolinguistic minority communities in South-East Asia have to start their education in a language they neither understand nor speak. Lessons learned elsewhere in the use of local languages could certainly be adapted to these contexts. Biliteracy and mother tongue-based bilingual education benefit particularly those who are monolingual in a local language or who have an insufficient knowledge of the currently used medium of instruction. Consequently, it is imperative to search for different options that could be considered viable for alleviating the constraints of ethnolinguistic minority education in South-East Asia. This would benefit hundreds of minority communities and tens of millions of people. 118
Acknowledgements Many thanks to the following people who have provided useful comments on earlier drafts of this paper: Carol Benson, Liz Billard, Norman Geary, Marilyn Gregerson, Paulette Hopple, Benedict Lin, Dennis Malone, Susan Malone, Jan Noorlander, Karla Smith, Sheldon Schaeffer, Kay Ringenberg, Anne Thomas, Win Aung, Sue Wright, and Catherine Young. Remaining faults and shortcomings are the responsibility of the author. References ADB. (2000a) Lao Country Report, August 2000. Health and Education Needs of Ethnic Minorities in the Greater Mekong Sub-Region. Asian Development Bank, TA No. 5794-REG and Research Triangle Institute. ADB. (2000b) Vietnam Country Report, August 2000. Health and Education Needs of Ethnic Minorities in the Greater Mekong Sub-Region. Asian Development Bank, TA No. 5794-REG and Research Triangle Institute. Aikman, S. (1995) Language, Literacy and Bilingual Education: an Amazon People’s Strategies for Cultural Maintenance. International Journal of Educational Development 15(4), 411-422. Aikman, S. & Pridmore, P. (2001) “Multigrade schooling in ‘remote’ areas of Vietnam.” International Journal of Educational Development. Vol. 21, No. 6, 521-536. APPEAL. (1999) Manual on Functional Literacy for Indigenous Peoples. Bangkok: UNESCO, PROAP. APPEAL. (2001) Regional Workshop on Functional Literacy for Indigenous Peoples. Kunming, Yunnan, People’s Republic of China, 24-29 October 2000. Final Report. Bangkok: UNESCO, PROAP. APPEAL. (2002) “Regional Training Workshop on Functional Literacy for Indigenous Peoples. November 26 – December 1, 2001, Raipur – India,” Unpublished draft report from UNESCO Bangkok. APPEAL. (2003) APPEAL Bulletin 1-2003. Bangkok: UNESCO, Asia-Pacific Regional Bureau for Education. APPEAL. (2004) APPEAL Bulletin Vol. 11, No. 3, March 2004. Bangkok: UNESCO, Asia-Pacific Regional Bureau for Education. Archibald, D. (2003) “An Evaluation of the Multigrade and Bilingual Education Project in Vietnam.” Human Rights Education In Asian Schools. Vol. 5. Osaka: Asia-Pacific Human Rights Information Center, 101-114. URL: http://www.hurights.or.jp/hreas/5/13archibald.<strong>pdf</strong> Baker, C. (2001) Foundations of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism. Third edition. Bilingual Education and Bilingualism 27. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters. 119
Page 1 and 2: Myanmar More than 100 languages are
Page 3 and 4: efforts by non-governmental organiz
Page 5 and 6: tongue. Regional LWCs, as well as l
Page 7 and 8: Singapore More than 20 languages ar
Page 9 and 10: and Dong instruction continues thro
Page 11 and 12: Notes to Table 1: 1 ‘Local langua
Page 13 and 14: Table 3 uses the same data as the f
Page 15 and 16: Linguistic Diversity in South-East
Page 17: determined in successful programmes
Page 21 and 22: Chazée, L. (1999) The Peoples of L
Page 23 and 24: Hornberger, N.H. and López, L.E. (
Page 25 and 26: Leclerc, J. (2004c) “Cambodge,”
Page 27 and 28: Nagai, Y. (2001) “Vernacular Educ
Page 29 and 30: Schliesinger, J. (1998) Hill Tribes
Page 31 and 32: UNESCO. (1953) The Use of Vernacula
Page 33 and 34: APPENDIX 1 Essential Concepts Used
Page 35 and 36: COUNTRY REPORTS Synthesis of Report
Page 37 and 38: Community consultation and decision
Page 39 and 40: a significant number of minority gr
Page 41 and 42: Representation in elected bodies Ea
Page 43 and 44: e able to absorb much more of the r
Page 45 and 46: • Explore the viability of the pr
Page 47 and 48: Contact with local stakeholders The
Page 49 and 50: Major Project Activities Staff Recr
Page 51 and 52: Present Status of the Action Resear
Page 53 and 54: China Bilingual Literacy Project fo
Page 55 and 56: population distribution, economic d
Page 57 and 58: Based on the results of field surve
Page 59 and 60: The target communities and their la
Page 61 and 62: have difficulties when they use Chi
Page 63 and 64: - learners will be able to read sim
Page 65 and 66: For both communities, the director
Page 67 and 68: 9. Challenges and Strategies for th
Page 69 and 70:
ix) Environment: The pressure on th
Page 71 and 72:
Figure 1. Background of Project Sit
Page 73 and 74:
upgraded into a district, and North
Page 75 and 76:
literacy, this project was targeted
Page 77 and 78:
manuscripts on various issues. The
Page 79 and 80:
Bilingual materials were produced (
Page 81 and 82:
Policy and expansion of the project
Page 83 and 84:
• Establishment/strengthening of
Page 85 and 86:
• Programme implementers must str
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Health and Personal Hygiene: Malari
Page 89 and 90:
- Waste management - Caring for wat
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presentation of the materials. This
Page 93 and 94:
Comments HALAMANG GAMOT • The mod
Page 95 and 96:
The following are among the challen
Page 97 and 98:
Thai people so that they will be ab
Page 99 and 100:
2002 statistics from the Ministry o
Page 101 and 102:
King - which was operating in 18 pr
Page 103 and 104:
Concerning strengths, the following
Page 105 and 106:
Background information on the proje
Page 107 and 108:
Pwo Karen. Three NFE Pwo Karen teac
Page 109 and 110:
Process of a Writer Workshop The ou
Page 111 and 112:
youth should be encouraged to work
Page 113 and 114:
Distribution: Limited UNESCO-APPEAL
Page 115 and 116:
1645-1715 Orientation to the Field
Page 117 and 118:
Distribution: Limited UNESCO-APPEAL
Page 119 and 120:
No. Country Name Position, Organiza
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