Population with access to education in first language 100 90 80 70 Percent 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Viet Nam Cambodia China Myanmar Laos Thailand Malaysia Singapore Philippines Indonesia Brunei Source: Walter (2004) [Cambodian, Lao and Thai situations estimated by the author on the basis of data from Chazée (1999), Grimes (2000), Kingsada (2003), National Statistical Centre (1997), Schliesinger (2000, 2003), and Smalley (1994). Figure 1. Estimated Proportion of National Populations with Access to Education in their First Language in China and South-East Asia Number of Languages Brunei Cambodia Singapore Thailand Laos Viet Nam Myanmar Malaysia Philippines China Indonesia 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 Source: Grimes (2000). Figure 2. Estimated Number of Languages Spoken in China and South-East Asia 114
Linguistic Diversity in South-East Asia The sixth column of Table 1 provides figures for the total number of languages spoken in each South-East Asian country. Figure 2 displays the same data in a graphic format. The data shows that there are no monolingual nations in the region. In every country, at least 17 languages are spoken, as in Brunei. On the other hand, more than 700 languages are spoken in Indonesia, about 200 in China, and 100-200 languages in Myanmar, Malaysia, and the Philippines. 4. Regional Trends in the Use of Local Languages in Education General Situation in the Region This section sums up the trends regarding the use of local languages in basic education in South-East Asia and China. Earlier discussion explored the language issue in eleven countries. In most of these countries, local languages are used in education, but the extent varies significantly. China provides the most elaborate forms and widest range of models of education in local languages. Larger LWCs, as well as smaller local languages, are used at various levels of education – in some cases, up to the university level. However, not all minorities in China receive equal support, and many ethnolinguistic minorities in China are not any better off than most minority groups in South-East Asia. No country in South-East Asia has such elaborate systems as China for including local languages in education. Of all eleven nations discussed in this article, mother tongue-based bilingual education can actually be found only in China, although there are promising pilot projects in other countries, such as those in Cambodia. In Malaysia, mother tongue-based bilingual education is provided only in major languages such as Mandarin Chinese and Tamil. Generally, “bilingual education” in South-East Asia means education in the national language and English. Cases of this can be found in Brunei, the Philippines, Singapore, and to some extent, Malaysia. Oral use of local languages is fairly common in all countries. There is no documented evidence from all countries, but it can be assumed that if minority students do not understand the medium of instruction, and if the teacher and her/his students have another common language, that language is used for classroom interaction and explaining the subject matter. A recent study from Tanzania and South Africa found that, despite the official language policy, teachers and students use languages with which they are most comfortable (Brock-Utne & Holmarsdottir 2004). Benson (2003, 22) uses the concept of “foot-in-the-door” strategies, meaning “measures that can be taken to facilitate a gradual process of change in classroom languages and interaction.” Such strategies include the authorized use of oral mother tongue in classrooms, the use of the mother tongue in preschools, short-cut transitional bilingual education, the mother tongue as a school subject, and NFE and literacy programmes in the mother tongue. Further language development in minority languages and continuing participatory development of reading materials in local languages could be added to this list, as well. In most South-East Asian countries, some foot-in-the-door strategies are apparent. For instance, in Cambodia, Malaysia and Thailand, a gradual process towards potential mother tongue-based bilingual education is taking place. In these countries, as well as in other parts of the world, such a process has usually started with community and NGO efforts in adult 115
- Page 1 and 2: Myanmar More than 100 languages are
- Page 3 and 4: efforts by non-governmental organiz
- Page 5 and 6: tongue. Regional LWCs, as well as l
- Page 7 and 8: Singapore More than 20 languages ar
- Page 9 and 10: and Dong instruction continues thro
- Page 11 and 12: Notes to Table 1: 1 ‘Local langua
- Page 13: Table 3 uses the same data as the f
- Page 17 and 18: determined in successful programmes
- Page 19 and 20: Acknowledgements Many thanks to the
- Page 21 and 22: Chazée, L. (1999) The Peoples of L
- Page 23 and 24: Hornberger, N.H. and López, L.E. (
- Page 25 and 26: Leclerc, J. (2004c) “Cambodge,”
- Page 27 and 28: Nagai, Y. (2001) “Vernacular Educ
- Page 29 and 30: Schliesinger, J. (1998) Hill Tribes
- Page 31 and 32: UNESCO. (1953) The Use of Vernacula
- Page 33 and 34: APPENDIX 1 Essential Concepts Used
- Page 35 and 36: COUNTRY REPORTS Synthesis of Report
- Page 37 and 38: Community consultation and decision
- Page 39 and 40: a significant number of minority gr
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- Page 43 and 44: e able to absorb much more of the r
- Page 45 and 46: • Explore the viability of the pr
- Page 47 and 48: Contact with local stakeholders The
- Page 49 and 50: Major Project Activities Staff Recr
- Page 51 and 52: Present Status of the Action Resear
- Page 53 and 54: China Bilingual Literacy Project fo
- Page 55 and 56: population distribution, economic d
- Page 57 and 58: Based on the results of field surve
- Page 59 and 60: The target communities and their la
- Page 61 and 62: have difficulties when they use Chi
- Page 63 and 64: - learners will be able to read sim
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For both communities, the director
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9. Challenges and Strategies for th
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ix) Environment: The pressure on th
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Figure 1. Background of Project Sit
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upgraded into a district, and North
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literacy, this project was targeted
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manuscripts on various issues. The
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Bilingual materials were produced (
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Policy and expansion of the project
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• Establishment/strengthening of
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• Programme implementers must str
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Health and Personal Hygiene: Malari
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- Waste management - Caring for wat
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presentation of the materials. This
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Comments HALAMANG GAMOT • The mod
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The following are among the challen
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Thai people so that they will be ab
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2002 statistics from the Ministry o
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King - which was operating in 18 pr
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Concerning strengths, the following
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Background information on the proje
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Pwo Karen. Three NFE Pwo Karen teac
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Process of a Writer Workshop The ou
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youth should be encouraged to work
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Distribution: Limited UNESCO-APPEAL
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1645-1715 Orientation to the Field
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Distribution: Limited UNESCO-APPEAL
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No. Country Name Position, Organiza
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