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write if they can speak. As the bilingual literacy includes a lot of functional literacy content, it motivates illiterate learners to learn written Lahu. During the bilingual literacy activities, Lahu people have reconsidered the value of their mother tongue (especially writing system) and have gained a new understanding of it, which promotes their interest in their first language. As they have become more literate, they have overcome psychological barriers associated with learning written Lahu. • In the process of becoming literate in their mother tongue, the Lahu have developed a new and deeper understanding of their traditional ethnic culture and significant ethnic spiritual heritage. It also has helped the Lahu people develop a stronger sense of identification with the culture, and promote their respect for and confidence in their culture. Gradually they begin to realize that language is an indispensable component of their culture that characterises their ethnic group. The bilingual literacy programme has helped preserve the traditional culture of the Lahu. The community learning centres, with the participation of learners, have carried out many cultural activities, such as traditional Lahu dancing and singing, and have resumed some traditional festivals. Through these activities, young people have a better understanding of their ethnic culture, and it will be handed down generation to generation. As learners become more involved with their language and culture, and also with the resumption of traditional festivals and ceremonies, much more attention has been paid to the Lahu culture by the outside world. The literacy programme has also helped the Lahu understand mainstream culture better. • Experience from project sites shows that it is very difficult for learners to learn Chinese immediately because there are great differences between Lahu and Chinese in word construction, grammar, tones, sentence structure, and expressions. Through the field survey and literature analysis, as well as through comparison between the bilingual literacy classes with others, we have found that: – it may take more than 800 hours for Lahu illiterates to reach the level of basic communication in Chinese and get the certificate of illiteracy eradication; – it may only take 360 hours for this to happen using a bilingual literacy programme. It may save time to adopt a bilingual literacy teaching approach to reach the same goal. Therefore, it is an effective strategy to implement bilingual literacy for Lahu people in the first phrase of literacy course. • In order to ensure the sustainability of the bilingual literacy project and to help literacy learners’ better master their own language, the project group has organized materials developers to develop bilingual learning material. The main contents include Practical Chinese, Practical Mathematics, Civic Life and Practical Skills. Learners have shown better understanding of the outside world. Learners have also acquired some practical knowledge of science and technology through La-Han bilingual adult literacy. • Experiences from Lancang County also emphasise that it is necessary to integrate language learning with the learning of practical knowledge and skills related to farming, the handicraft industry and other activities related to the daily lives of learners in order to better master language, especially written language. It is motivational for poverty-stricken people to integrate the learning of 3Rs with income-generation. 166
9. Challenges and Strategies for the Sustainable Development of Lahu During the implementation of the project, we have identified challenge and strategies for the sustainable development of the Lahu spoken and written language. The challenges are: • Utilitarian values towards language • Lack of learning materials in Lahu language • Lack of available teachers for written Lahu • Absence of modern media in the Lahu community • Narrow domain for Lahu language use • Influence of the mainstream culture The strategies are: • to work towards policies and regulations concerned with bilingual literacy and support – funds and facilities – from government, especially local government; • to develop Lahu-Chinese bilingual literacy learning resources and materials; • to train Lahu-Chinese bilingual teachers with the cooperation of GOs and NGOs; • to set up community learning centres for Lahu people; • to emphasize cultural and economic values through the implementation of bilingual functional literacy approaches; and • to introduce the cultural traditions, productive means and unique values of the Lahu nationality to the outside world. India Literacy through the Mother Tongue: The Indian Experience Socio-economic situation in India A Common Country Assessment based on acknowledged data about the demographic, cultural, political and socio-economic situation in India identifies nine priority problem areas of concern in India. These are: 167
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Myanmar More than 100 languages are
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efforts by non-governmental organiz
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tongue. Regional LWCs, as well as l
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Singapore More than 20 languages ar
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and Dong instruction continues thro
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Notes to Table 1: 1 ‘Local langua
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Table 3 uses the same data as the f
Page 15 and 16: Linguistic Diversity in South-East
Page 17 and 18: determined in successful programmes
Page 19 and 20: Acknowledgements Many thanks to the
Page 21 and 22: Chazée, L. (1999) The Peoples of L
Page 23 and 24: Hornberger, N.H. and López, L.E. (
Page 25 and 26: Leclerc, J. (2004c) “Cambodge,”
Page 27 and 28: Nagai, Y. (2001) “Vernacular Educ
Page 29 and 30: Schliesinger, J. (1998) Hill Tribes
Page 31 and 32: UNESCO. (1953) The Use of Vernacula
Page 33 and 34: APPENDIX 1 Essential Concepts Used
Page 35 and 36: COUNTRY REPORTS Synthesis of Report
Page 37 and 38: Community consultation and decision
Page 39 and 40: a significant number of minority gr
Page 41 and 42: Representation in elected bodies Ea
Page 43 and 44: e able to absorb much more of the r
Page 45 and 46: • Explore the viability of the pr
Page 47 and 48: Contact with local stakeholders The
Page 49 and 50: Major Project Activities Staff Recr
Page 51 and 52: Present Status of the Action Resear
Page 53 and 54: China Bilingual Literacy Project fo
Page 55 and 56: population distribution, economic d
Page 57 and 58: Based on the results of field surve
Page 59 and 60: The target communities and their la
Page 61 and 62: have difficulties when they use Chi
Page 63 and 64: - learners will be able to read sim
Page 65: For both communities, the director
Page 69 and 70: ix) Environment: The pressure on th
Page 71 and 72: Figure 1. Background of Project Sit
Page 73 and 74: upgraded into a district, and North
Page 75 and 76: literacy, this project was targeted
Page 77 and 78: manuscripts on various issues. The
Page 79 and 80: Bilingual materials were produced (
Page 81 and 82: Policy and expansion of the project
Page 83 and 84: • Establishment/strengthening of
Page 85 and 86: • Programme implementers must str
Page 87 and 88: Health and Personal Hygiene: Malari
Page 89 and 90: - Waste management - Caring for wat
Page 91 and 92: presentation of the materials. This
Page 93 and 94: Comments HALAMANG GAMOT • The mod
Page 95 and 96: The following are among the challen
Page 97 and 98: Thai people so that they will be ab
Page 99 and 100: 2002 statistics from the Ministry o
Page 101 and 102: King - which was operating in 18 pr
Page 103 and 104: Concerning strengths, the following
Page 105 and 106: Background information on the proje
Page 107 and 108: Pwo Karen. Three NFE Pwo Karen teac
Page 109 and 110: Process of a Writer Workshop The ou
Page 111 and 112: youth should be encouraged to work
Page 113 and 114: Distribution: Limited UNESCO-APPEAL
Page 115 and 116: 1645-1715 Orientation to the Field
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Distribution: Limited UNESCO-APPEAL
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No. Country Name Position, Organiza
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