Pigment Reduction in Corn Gluten Meal and Its Effects on Muscle ...

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yield of fiber fraction did not show a clear trend, however higher values were obta<strong>in</strong>ed with theHiC7 kernel variety. F<strong>in</strong>ally, the yield of solids <strong>in</strong> steepwater showed no clear trend.Total starch <strong>and</strong> crude prote<strong>in</strong> content <strong>in</strong> starch <strong>and</strong> gluten fraction are presented <strong>in</strong> Table5.3. Total starch content <strong>in</strong> starch fraction ranged from 81% to 93% <strong>and</strong> did not show any cleartrend. Crude prote<strong>in</strong> content <strong>in</strong> starch fraction was m<strong>in</strong>imal (ranged from 0.16% to 0.29%). Totalstarch content <strong>in</strong> the gluten fraction showed no clear trend <strong>and</strong> varied from 24% to 26%. Crudeprote<strong>in</strong> content <strong>in</strong> gluten fraction did not show a clear trend <strong>in</strong> this study <strong>and</strong> varied from 29% to43%.The carotenoid profile of corn gluten fractions produced <strong>in</strong> this trial is presented <strong>in</strong> Table5.4. Concentrations of all-trans lute<strong>in</strong>, all-trans zeaxanth<strong>in</strong>, all-trans β-cryptoxanth<strong>in</strong> <strong>and</strong> all-transβ-carotene <strong>in</strong> gluten fractions obta<strong>in</strong>ed from variety HiC7 were reduced to <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g levels ofhydrogen peroxide under either acidic <strong>and</strong> alkal<strong>in</strong>e conditions. All carotenoids from the glutenfractions produced from variety HiC23 were reduced under acidic condition as hydrogenperoxide concentration was <strong>in</strong>creased. On the other h<strong>and</strong>, under alkal<strong>in</strong>e conditions, pigmentreduction <strong>in</strong> gluten fraction obta<strong>in</strong>ed from variety HiC23 was m<strong>in</strong>imal.A reduction was observed <strong>in</strong> the concentration of all different type of pigments fromvariety HiC7 under both acidic <strong>and</strong> alkal<strong>in</strong>e conditions as well as from variety HiC23 underacidic conditions to <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g levels of hydrogen peroxide. Conversely, carotenoid level <strong>in</strong> corngluten meal obta<strong>in</strong>ed from kernel variety HiC23 under alkal<strong>in</strong>e tended to be at a relativelyconstant level.Results for mass balance of total starch <strong>and</strong> crude prote<strong>in</strong> are shown <strong>in</strong> Table 5.5. Massbalance of total starch <strong>in</strong>creased with hydrogen peroxide <strong>in</strong>clusion for the two corn varieties113
under acidic <strong>and</strong> alkal<strong>in</strong>e conditions. Conversely, mass balance of crude prote<strong>in</strong> was reduced <strong>in</strong>variety HiC7 <strong>and</strong> HiC23 under acidic <strong>and</strong> alkal<strong>in</strong>e conditions, respectively.Tables 5.6 <strong>and</strong> 5.7 present mass balance of carotenoid pigments <strong>and</strong> the significance offactors applied, respectively. Mass balance of pigments <strong>in</strong> corn gluten meal produced from bothkernel varieties showed a general reduction trend to hydrogen peroxide level under both acidic<strong>and</strong> alkal<strong>in</strong>e conditions.5.4 DiscussionBleach<strong>in</strong>g of yellow carotenoids from corn gluten meal was assessed us<strong>in</strong>g a laboratoryscalewet mill<strong>in</strong>g process. Hydrogen peroxide, a bleach<strong>in</strong>g agent widely utilized for colourreduction <strong>in</strong> cellulosic <strong>and</strong> dairy products (Zeronian <strong>and</strong> Inglesby, 1995; Abdel-Aal et al., 1996;Kang et al., 2010) was <strong>in</strong>cluded <strong>in</strong> steepwater <strong>and</strong> applied under either acidic (pH~2) or alkal<strong>in</strong>e(pH~11) conditions. Two different corn kernel varieties were chosen based on their highcarotenoid content <strong>and</strong> composition (Table 5.1).The wet mill<strong>in</strong>g process used <strong>in</strong> this trial allowed the separation of corn kernels <strong>in</strong>to fivedifferent fractions (i.e. starch, gluten, germ, fiber <strong>and</strong> solids <strong>in</strong> steepwater). Yield of solids <strong>in</strong>steepwater obta<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> this trial did not show a clear trend <strong>and</strong> values were high (rang<strong>in</strong>g from6% to 17%) compared to those previously reported for this fraction (Zehr et al., 1995). Thisresult suggests that large amounts of soluble compounds from corn kernels were leached <strong>in</strong>tosteep water dur<strong>in</strong>g the course of steep<strong>in</strong>g.Yields of germ <strong>and</strong> fiber fractions obta<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> this trial (Table 5.2) were similar to thoseregularly achieved dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>dustrial operations. H<strong>and</strong>-dissection for hull <strong>and</strong> germ removalapplied <strong>in</strong> this study most probably led to an efficient isolation of these fractions. Yields of114
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Pigment Re
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ingredients. Furth
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Thanks to all my colleagues, friend
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2.10.1 Enzymatic treatments .......
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LIST OF TABLESTable 3. 1 - Factors
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LIST OF FIGURESFigure 2. 1 - Molecu
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Ingredients commonly in</st
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CHAPTER - 2 LITERATURE REVIEW2.1 In
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leached when 5% of soy flour as LOX
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deep and fast glyc
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observed in ra<str
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Chylomicron constituents are remove
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Muscle growth in r
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2.7.2 Corn gluten
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2010). However, due to its imbalanc
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No differences in
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supplemented with 42% of a vegetabl
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Soybean seeds are the richest known
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2.10.1.4 Bleaching
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2.11 ConclusionInclusion of <strong
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4.0%*68%* 5.6%* 12%* 3.5%* 6.5%*Fig
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Figure 2. 4 - Schematic representat
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3.1 IntroductionThe characteristic
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many factors such as LOX source lev
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During the 12-week
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3.2.3 Analytical methodsDry matter
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solution was generated by mix<stron
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3.2.4 Statistical analysisData from
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Factors defined as
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chromatography). Relative amounts o
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After carotenoids are absorbed thro
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and ended up <stro
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Table 3. 2 - Experimental design us
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Table 3. 4 - Analysed proximate com
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Proximate composition (Analysed; dr
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Table 3. 7 - Lipoxygenase activity
Page 73 and 74: 18 1 0 -1 0 120 15 0 10 2519 -1 0 1
Page 75 and 76: Table 3. 10 - HPLC carotenoid profi
Page 77 and 78: Table 3. 12 - Retain</stron
Page 79 and 80: Table 3. 14 - Fillet carotenoid con
Page 81 and 82: Total yellow pigment(mg•kg -1 )25
Page 83 and 84: Figure 3. 4 - Growth curve of ra<st
Page 85 and 86: effects of dietary CGM and<
Page 87 and 88: soybean meal in a
Page 89 and 90: were randomly samp
Page 91 and 92: An aliquot (1 ml) of chloroform low
Page 93 and 94: Retained nitrogen
Page 95 and 96: significant (p
Page 97 and 98: Values for all-trans astaxanth<stro
Page 99 and 100: previous reports where colour attri
Page 101 and 102: Proximate composition (analysed), d
Page 103 and 104: Table 4. 2 - Growth performance of
Page 105 and 106: Table 4. 3 - Carcass chemical proxi
Page 107 and 108: Table 4. 4 - Retain</strong
Page 109 and 110: Table 4. 5 - Pigment</stron
Page 111 and 112: Table 4. 6 - Colour attributes <str
Page 113 and 114: FiguresFigure 4. 1 - Growth curves
Page 115 and 116: Figure 4. 3 - Muscle colour attribu
Page 117 and 118: the effects of dietary reduced-caro
Page 119 and 120: astaxanthin deposi
Page 121 and 122: After steeping, ke
Page 123: 0.9994 and 0.9999,
Page 127 and 128: oxidation within t
Page 129 and 130: colour difference usin</str
Page 131 and 132: TablesTable 5. 1 - Analyzed proxima
Page 133 and 134: Effects of
Page 141 and 142: Data are mean (n=2).a Steepwater pH
Page 143 and 144: CHAPTER - 6 GENERAL DISCUSSIONCurre
Page 145 and 146: significant reduction in</s
Page 147 and 148: Reduction of pigme
Page 149 and 150: though wheat gluten meal conta<stro
Page 151 and 152: BibliographyAas, G.H., Storebakken,
Page 153 and 154: Bjerkeng, B., Hatlen, B., Wathne, E
Page 155 and 156: Choubert, G., Cravedi, J., Laurenti
Page 157 and 158: Fauconneau, B., Andre, S., Chmaitil
Page 159 and 160: Johnston, I., Li, X., Vieira, V., N
Page 161 and 162: Li, M.H., Oberle, D.F., Lucas, P.M.
Page 163 and 164: Peter, C.M., Han, Y., Bolin
Page 165 and 166: Skonberg, D.I., Hardy, R.W., Barrow
Page 167: Ytrestoyl, T., Struksnæs, G., Kopp
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