Pigment Reduction in Corn Gluten Meal and Its Effects on Muscle ...

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different pigments would be carried <strong>in</strong>to the enterocyte’s Golgi apparatus <strong>and</strong> assembled <strong>in</strong>tonascent chylomicrons, result<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> lower astaxanth<strong>in</strong> concentrations be<strong>in</strong>g aggregated <strong>in</strong>tochylomicrons.Carotenoids are transported by lipoprote<strong>in</strong>s with<strong>in</strong> the blood stream from the <strong>in</strong>test<strong>in</strong>al cells<strong>and</strong> to peripheral tissue. A potential <strong>in</strong>teraction or competition between canthaxanth<strong>in</strong> <strong>and</strong>astaxanth<strong>in</strong> for uptake <strong>and</strong>/or blood-carry<strong>in</strong>g capacity <strong>in</strong> Atlantic salmon has been reported(Kiessl<strong>in</strong>g et al., 2003). Whether lute<strong>in</strong> <strong>and</strong>/or zeaxanth<strong>in</strong> may <strong>in</strong>teract <strong>in</strong> the same fashion withastaxanth<strong>in</strong> for transport with<strong>in</strong> blood stream rema<strong>in</strong>s to be explored.The aff<strong>in</strong>ity of astaxanth<strong>in</strong> for b<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>g sites with<strong>in</strong> muscle fibers has been previously studied.Whether lute<strong>in</strong> <strong>and</strong> zeaxanth<strong>in</strong> show aff<strong>in</strong>ity similar to astaxanth<strong>in</strong> for prote<strong>in</strong> complex with<strong>in</strong>muscle or if there are selective accumulation mechanisms for different types pigment <strong>in</strong> muscleof salmonid fish rema<strong>in</strong>s to be explored.6.2 Factors other than carotenoids <strong>in</strong> corn gluten meal reduc<strong>in</strong>g astaxanth<strong>in</strong> muscledepositionA consistent significant reduction <strong>in</strong> muscle astaxanth<strong>in</strong> deposition <strong>in</strong> response to dietarycorn gluten meal was obta<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> Chapters 3 <strong>and</strong> 4. This f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>g contradicts those previouslyreported by Olsen <strong>and</strong> Baker (2006), who observed no reduction <strong>in</strong> astaxanth<strong>in</strong> deposition <strong>in</strong>muscle from Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) fed diets conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g a purified synthetic source oflute<strong>in</strong> <strong>and</strong> synthetic astaxanth<strong>in</strong>, compared to those fed a diet supplemented astaxanth<strong>in</strong> as as<strong>in</strong>gle source of carotenoid. Anecdotal evidence from feed producers suggests that dietary<strong>in</strong>clusion of wheat gluten meal results <strong>in</strong> the reduction of muscle astaxanth<strong>in</strong> deposition, even137
though wheat gluten meal conta<strong>in</strong>s only about 6% - 35% of the carotenoid concentration present<strong>in</strong> corn gluten meal.Consider<strong>in</strong>g this evidence, it can be hypothesized that the observed reduction <strong>in</strong> muscleastaxanth<strong>in</strong> deposition might be attributed to the <strong>in</strong>teraction of component(s), other than yellowpigments, present <strong>in</strong> both corn <strong>and</strong> wheat gluten meal such am<strong>in</strong>o acid composition for <strong>in</strong>stance6.3 Future researchThe results obta<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> this thesis suggest that future research on the evaluation of plantorig<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>gredients on flesh quality is necessary. In-vitro studies focus<strong>in</strong>g on the behaviour ofdifferent pigments <strong>and</strong> comb<strong>in</strong>ations of pigments dur<strong>in</strong>g emulsification, transference <strong>and</strong>transport with<strong>in</strong> bile mixed micelles will shed light on the potential <strong>in</strong>teraction or competitionamong carotenoids before absorption with<strong>in</strong> the <strong>in</strong>test<strong>in</strong>al wall.Evaluation of the digestibility <strong>and</strong> blood appearance of pigments <strong>in</strong> fish fed dietssupplemented with plant-prote<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>gredients might be helpful to underst<strong>and</strong> how these nutrientsare absorbed <strong>and</strong> transported with<strong>in</strong> the blood stream. This can be achieved by the developmentof <strong>in</strong>-vitro digestibility trials <strong>and</strong> the determ<strong>in</strong>ation of specific apo-lipoprote<strong>in</strong>s <strong>in</strong> the bloodstream for example.Assessment of the aff<strong>in</strong>ity of lute<strong>in</strong> <strong>and</strong> zeaxanth<strong>in</strong> for b<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>g sites with<strong>in</strong> muscle fibermight help underst<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g whether reduction <strong>in</strong> astaxanth<strong>in</strong> concentration <strong>in</strong> fillet from salmonidfish is due to competition among different pigments for deposition with<strong>in</strong> the muscle.138
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Pigment Re
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ingredients. Furth
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Thanks to all my colleagues, friend
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2.10.1 Enzymatic treatments .......
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LIST OF TABLESTable 3. 1 - Factors
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LIST OF FIGURESFigure 2. 1 - Molecu
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Ingredients commonly in</st
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CHAPTER - 2 LITERATURE REVIEW2.1 In
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leached when 5% of soy flour as LOX
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deep and fast glyc
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observed in ra<str
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Chylomicron constituents are remove
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Muscle growth in r
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2.7.2 Corn gluten
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2010). However, due to its imbalanc
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No differences in
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supplemented with 42% of a vegetabl
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Soybean seeds are the richest known
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2.10.1.4 Bleaching
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2.11 ConclusionInclusion of <strong
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4.0%*68%* 5.6%* 12%* 3.5%* 6.5%*Fig
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Figure 2. 4 - Schematic representat
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3.1 IntroductionThe characteristic
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many factors such as LOX source lev
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During the 12-week
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3.2.3 Analytical methodsDry matter
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solution was generated by mix<stron
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3.2.4 Statistical analysisData from
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Factors defined as
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chromatography). Relative amounts o
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After carotenoids are absorbed thro
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and ended up <stro
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Table 3. 2 - Experimental design us
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Table 3. 4 - Analysed proximate com
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Proximate composition (Analysed; dr
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Table 3. 7 - Lipoxygenase activity
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18 1 0 -1 0 120 15 0 10 2519 -1 0 1
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Table 3. 10 - HPLC carotenoid profi
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Table 3. 12 - Retain</stron
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Table 3. 14 - Fillet carotenoid con
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Total yellow pigment(mg•kg -1 )25
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Figure 3. 4 - Growth curve of ra<st
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effects of dietary CGM and<
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soybean meal in a
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were randomly samp
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An aliquot (1 ml) of chloroform low
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Retained nitrogen
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significant (p
Page 97 and 98: Values for all-trans astaxanth<stro
Page 99 and 100: previous reports where colour attri
Page 101 and 102: Proximate composition (analysed), d
Page 103 and 104: Table 4. 2 - Growth performance of
Page 105 and 106: Table 4. 3 - Carcass chemical proxi
Page 107 and 108: Table 4. 4 - Retain</strong
Page 109 and 110: Table 4. 5 - Pigment</stron
Page 111 and 112: Table 4. 6 - Colour attributes <str
Page 113 and 114: FiguresFigure 4. 1 - Growth curves
Page 115 and 116: Figure 4. 3 - Muscle colour attribu
Page 117 and 118: the effects of dietary reduced-caro
Page 119 and 120: astaxanthin deposi
Page 121 and 122: After steeping, ke
Page 123 and 124: 0.9994 and 0.9999,
Page 125 and 126: under acidic and a
Page 127 and 128: oxidation within t
Page 129 and 130: colour difference usin</str
Page 131 and 132: TablesTable 5. 1 - Analyzed proxima
Page 133 and 134: Effects of
Page 141 and 142: Data are mean (n=2).a Steepwater pH
Page 143 and 144: CHAPTER - 6 GENERAL DISCUSSIONCurre
Page 145 and 146: significant reduction in</s
Page 147: Reduction of pigme
Page 151 and 152: BibliographyAas, G.H., Storebakken,
Page 153 and 154: Bjerkeng, B., Hatlen, B., Wathne, E
Page 155 and 156: Choubert, G., Cravedi, J., Laurenti
Page 157 and 158: Fauconneau, B., Andre, S., Chmaitil
Page 159 and 160: Johnston, I., Li, X., Vieira, V., N
Page 161 and 162: Li, M.H., Oberle, D.F., Lucas, P.M.
Page 163 and 164: Peter, C.M., Han, Y., Bolin
Page 165 and 166: Skonberg, D.I., Hardy, R.W., Barrow
Page 167: Ytrestoyl, T., Struksnæs, G., Kopp
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