Pigment Reduction in Corn Gluten Meal and Its Effects on Muscle ...

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4.1 IntroductionColour of muscle from salmonid fish is associated to f<strong>in</strong>al product quality <strong>and</strong> significantly<strong>in</strong>fluences consumers’ perception (Alfnes et al., 2006; Anderson, 2000). This dist<strong>in</strong>ctive fleshquality parameter is achieved by the deposition <strong>and</strong> accumulation of carotenoid pigments, ma<strong>in</strong>lyastaxanth<strong>in</strong>, with<strong>in</strong> muscle fibers. Salmonid fish are unable to synthetize carotenoids de novo(Choubert et al., 2006), therefore formulated diets are supplemented with synthetic or naturallyoccurr<strong>in</strong>g pigments <strong>in</strong> order to satisfy market preferences. Dietary <strong>in</strong>clusion of expensivecarotenoids premixes accounts for up to 10 -20% of feed price (Bjerkeng, 2000; Choubert et al.,2009).Formulation of aquaculture feeds has progressively reduced its dependence upon fish mealas a major prote<strong>in</strong> source. <strong>Corn</strong> gluten meal (CGM), is a highly digestible, prote<strong>in</strong>-rich (60%crude prote<strong>in</strong>) secondary product of the corn wet mill<strong>in</strong>g process that is widely utilized <strong>in</strong> theformulation of diets for a number of fish species. The ma<strong>in</strong> goal of conventional corn wet mill<strong>in</strong>gis to isolate <strong>and</strong> ref<strong>in</strong>e starch, however different structural constituent of the corn kernels (i.e.prote<strong>in</strong>, germ <strong>and</strong> hull) are separated <strong>in</strong>to different fractions along the process. Dur<strong>in</strong>g mill<strong>in</strong>g,naturally occurr<strong>in</strong>g carotenoids from corn kernels, ma<strong>in</strong>ly lute<strong>in</strong> <strong>and</strong> zeaxanth<strong>in</strong>, rema<strong>in</strong>embedded with<strong>in</strong> the prote<strong>in</strong> fraction, hence elevated levels (200-500 mg kg -1 ) of yellowxanthophylls are recovered <strong>in</strong> CGM (Park et al., 1997; Skonberg et al., 1998).Results from few scientific studies along with field evidence from fish farmers <strong>in</strong>dicate asignificant impact of dietary CGM on astaxanth<strong>in</strong> deposition <strong>and</strong> colour attributes <strong>in</strong> musclesfrom salmonid fish. Fillets from Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) (f<strong>in</strong>al body weight=450 g fish -1 )fed diets formulated to conta<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g levels of a plant prote<strong>in</strong> blend (CGM <strong>and</strong> full fat75
soybean meal <strong>in</strong> a 2:1 ratio) <strong>and</strong> 64 mg kg -1 of astaxanth<strong>in</strong>, showed a negative response <strong>in</strong> colourattributes (measured as SalmoFan® scores) after a 11-week feed<strong>in</strong>g trial (Mundheim et al.,2004). A yellowish appearance (based on tristimulus colour analysis) was assessed <strong>in</strong> fillet fromra<strong>in</strong>bow trout (320 g fish -1 of f<strong>in</strong>al body weight) fed a high CGM diet (22.5%) compared to thosefrom fish fed a high CGM diet (22.5%) supplemented with 100 mg kg -1 canthaxanth<strong>in</strong> for 12weeks (Skonberg et al., 1998). More recently, Saez et al. (unpublished results), observed asignificant (p
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Pigment Re
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ingredients. Furth
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Thanks to all my colleagues, friend
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2.10.1 Enzymatic treatments .......
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LIST OF TABLESTable 3. 1 - Factors
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LIST OF FIGURESFigure 2. 1 - Molecu
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Ingredients commonly in</st
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CHAPTER - 2 LITERATURE REVIEW2.1 In
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leached when 5% of soy flour as LOX
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deep and fast glyc
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observed in ra<str
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Chylomicron constituents are remove
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Muscle growth in r
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2.7.2 Corn gluten
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2010). However, due to its imbalanc
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No differences in
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supplemented with 42% of a vegetabl
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Page 37 and 38: 2.10.1.4 Bleaching
Page 39 and 40: 2.11 ConclusionInclusion of <strong
Page 41 and 42: 4.0%*68%* 5.6%* 12%* 3.5%* 6.5%*Fig
Page 43 and 44: Figure 2. 4 - Schematic representat
Page 45 and 46: 3.1 IntroductionThe characteristic
Page 47 and 48: many factors such as LOX source lev
Page 49 and 50: During the 12-week
Page 51 and 52: 3.2.3 Analytical methodsDry matter
Page 53 and 54: solution was generated by mix<stron
Page 55 and 56: 3.2.4 Statistical analysisData from
Page 57 and 58: Factors defined as
Page 59 and 60: chromatography). Relative amounts o
Page 61 and 62: After carotenoids are absorbed thro
Page 63 and 64: and ended up <stro
Page 65 and 66: Table 3. 2 - Experimental design us
Page 67 and 68: Table 3. 4 - Analysed proximate com
Page 69 and 70: Proximate composition (Analysed; dr
Page 71 and 72: Table 3. 7 - Lipoxygenase activity
Page 73 and 74: 18 1 0 -1 0 120 15 0 10 2519 -1 0 1
Page 75 and 76: Table 3. 10 - HPLC carotenoid profi
Page 77 and 78: Table 3. 12 - Retain</stron
Page 79 and 80: Table 3. 14 - Fillet carotenoid con
Page 81 and 82: Total yellow pigment(mg•kg -1 )25
Page 83 and 84: Figure 3. 4 - Growth curve of ra<st
Page 85: effects of dietary CGM and<
Page 89 and 90: were randomly samp
Page 91 and 92: An aliquot (1 ml) of chloroform low
Page 93 and 94: Retained nitrogen
Page 95 and 96: significant (p
Page 97 and 98: Values for all-trans astaxanth<stro
Page 99 and 100: previous reports where colour attri
Page 101 and 102: Proximate composition (analysed), d
Page 103 and 104: Table 4. 2 - Growth performance of
Page 105 and 106: Table 4. 3 - Carcass chemical proxi
Page 107 and 108: Table 4. 4 - Retain</strong
Page 109 and 110: Table 4. 5 - Pigment</stron
Page 111 and 112: Table 4. 6 - Colour attributes <str
Page 113 and 114: FiguresFigure 4. 1 - Growth curves
Page 115 and 116: Figure 4. 3 - Muscle colour attribu
Page 117 and 118: the effects of dietary reduced-caro
Page 119 and 120: astaxanthin deposi
Page 121 and 122: After steeping, ke
Page 123 and 124: 0.9994 and 0.9999,
Page 125 and 126: under acidic and a
Page 127 and 128: oxidation within t
Page 129 and 130: colour difference usin</str
Page 131 and 132: TablesTable 5. 1 - Analyzed proxima
Page 133 and 134: Effects of
Page 135 and 136: Effects of
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Effects of
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Effects of
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Data are mean (n=2).a Steepwater pH
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CHAPTER - 6 GENERAL DISCUSSIONCurre
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significant reduction in</s
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Reduction of pigme
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though wheat gluten meal conta<stro
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BibliographyAas, G.H., Storebakken,
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Bjerkeng, B., Hatlen, B., Wathne, E
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Choubert, G., Cravedi, J., Laurenti
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Fauconneau, B., Andre, S., Chmaitil
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Johnston, I., Li, X., Vieira, V., N
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Li, M.H., Oberle, D.F., Lucas, P.M.
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Peter, C.M., Han, Y., Bolin
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Skonberg, D.I., Hardy, R.W., Barrow
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Ytrestoyl, T., Struksnæs, G., Kopp
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