Pigment Reduction in Corn Gluten Meal and Its Effects on Muscle ...

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CHAPTER - 1 GENERAL INTRODUCTIONAquaculture, a fast grow<strong>in</strong>g food supply<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>dustry, produced about 64 million MT offish <strong>in</strong> 2011, account<strong>in</strong>g for nearly 50% of consumed fish food globally (FAO, 2012). Productionis expected to <strong>in</strong>crease up to 60% by 2020. These production levels are currently achieved by theculture of more than 300 different species, with various carp species dom<strong>in</strong>at<strong>in</strong>g globalaquaculture production. In 2010, salmonid fish, Atlantic salmon <strong>and</strong> ra<strong>in</strong>bow trout (Salmo salar<strong>and</strong> Oncorhynchus mykiss, respectively) production share represented a 3.5% of the worldaquaculture production of fish, crustaceans <strong>and</strong> molluscs valued at US$1.4 billion (FAO, 2012).Flesh quality <strong>in</strong> f<strong>in</strong>al products from salmonid fish is determ<strong>in</strong>ed by a comb<strong>in</strong>ation ofseveral factors <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g colour. This quality trait is positively correlated to product price asconsumers associate colour with freshness, higher quality <strong>and</strong> better flavour (Alfnes et al., 2006).In the wild, salmonid fish obta<strong>in</strong> carotenoid from prey they consume. In salmonid fish culture,premixes conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g synthetic <strong>and</strong> naturally occurr<strong>in</strong>g pigments, ma<strong>in</strong>ly astaxanth<strong>in</strong>, must be<strong>in</strong>cluded <strong>in</strong> the feed as salmonids are not able to synthetize carotenoids de novo. <strong>Pigment</strong>premixes are very expensive <strong>and</strong> carotenoid supplementation represents up to 15% of f<strong>in</strong>al feedcosts (Bjerkeng, 2000; Choubert et al., 2009).Formulation of diets for salmonid fish has evolved <strong>in</strong> order to <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong>clusion levels ofcost-effective prote<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>gredients due to the better underst<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g of nutritional requirements.Large amounts of research have been conducted <strong>in</strong> order to assess the effects of different<strong>in</strong>gredients on growth performance, <strong>and</strong> nutrient utilization <strong>in</strong> the last five decades. Howevernegligible efforts have been conducted on the effects of these <strong>in</strong>gredients on f<strong>in</strong>al productquality.1
Ingredients commonly <strong>in</strong>cluded <strong>in</strong> formulation for fish are fish meal, poultry by-productmeal, meat <strong>and</strong> bone meal, soybean meal, soy prote<strong>in</strong> concentrates <strong>and</strong> corn gluten meal (Alexiset al., 1985; Cha et al., 2000; de Francesco et al., 2004). <strong>Corn</strong> gluten meal, is a high prote<strong>in</strong>(~60% crude prote<strong>in</strong>), highly digestible by product of the corn wet mill<strong>in</strong>g process<strong>in</strong>g that iswidely utilized <strong>in</strong> diets for many fish species. <strong>Corn</strong> wet mill<strong>in</strong>g is an <strong>in</strong>dustrial process aim<strong>in</strong>g tofractionate corn kernel ma<strong>in</strong> constituents (i.e. starch, prote<strong>in</strong>, germ <strong>and</strong> fiber) <strong>and</strong> furtherprocess/ref<strong>in</strong>e them <strong>in</strong> order to produce high quality products for food, feed <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>dustrialpurposes. Dur<strong>in</strong>g wet mill<strong>in</strong>g, naturally occurr<strong>in</strong>g yellow pigments from corn rema<strong>in</strong> with theprote<strong>in</strong> fraction. Consequently corn gluten meal conta<strong>in</strong>s substantial amount of yellowxanthophylls (200 – 550 mg kg -1 ), ma<strong>in</strong>ly lute<strong>in</strong> <strong>and</strong> zeaxanth<strong>in</strong> (Skonberg et al., 1998; Park etal., 1997).Anecdotal evidence from fish farmers <strong>in</strong>dicates that high <strong>in</strong>clusion levels of CGM havebeen related to reduction <strong>in</strong> muscle pigmentation <strong>in</strong> salmonid fish. Results from few scientificstudies suggest that yellow xanthophylls from CGM might <strong>in</strong>duce ‘yellowish’ appearance <strong>in</strong>fillets but also a reduction of astaxanth<strong>in</strong> muscle deposition (Skonberg et al., 1998). Fillets fromAtlantic salmon presented a significant reduction <strong>in</strong> pigmentation (measured us<strong>in</strong>g SalmoFancolorimetric analysis) <strong>in</strong> response to graded levels of a vegetable prote<strong>in</strong> blend (CGM <strong>and</strong> full fatsoybean meal <strong>in</strong> a 2:1 ratio) <strong>in</strong> diets supplemented with astaxanth<strong>in</strong> (Mundheim et al., 2004).Higher yellowish hue was determ<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> fillets from ra<strong>in</strong>bow trout fed a high CGM diet with nopigment supplementation compared with those from fish fed a high CGM <strong>and</strong> supplementedsynthetic canthaxanth<strong>in</strong> (Skonberg et al., 1998).Given the lipid soluble nature <strong>and</strong> the similarities of molecular structure shared byastaxanth<strong>in</strong> <strong>and</strong> yellow xanthophylls from corn gluten meal, an <strong>in</strong>teraction/competition among2
Page 1 and 2: Pigment Re
Page 3 and 4: ingredients. Furth
Page 5 and 6: Thanks to all my colleagues, friend
Page 7 and 8: 2.10.1 Enzymatic treatments .......
Page 9 and 10: LIST OF TABLESTable 3. 1 - Factors
Page 11: LIST OF FIGURESFigure 2. 1 - Molecu
Page 15 and 16: CHAPTER - 2 LITERATURE REVIEW2.1 In
Page 17 and 18: leached when 5% of soy flour as LOX
Page 19 and 20: deep and fast glyc
Page 21 and 22: observed in ra<str
Page 23 and 24: Chylomicron constituents are remove
Page 25 and 26: Muscle growth in r
Page 27 and 28: 2.7.2 Corn gluten
Page 29 and 30: 2010). However, due to its imbalanc
Page 31 and 32: No differences in
Page 33 and 34: supplemented with 42% of a vegetabl
Page 35 and 36: Soybean seeds are the richest known
Page 37 and 38: 2.10.1.4 Bleaching
Page 39 and 40: 2.11 ConclusionInclusion of <strong
Page 41 and 42: 4.0%*68%* 5.6%* 12%* 3.5%* 6.5%*Fig
Page 43 and 44: Figure 2. 4 - Schematic representat
Page 45 and 46: 3.1 IntroductionThe characteristic
Page 47 and 48: many factors such as LOX source lev
Page 49 and 50: During the 12-week
Page 51 and 52: 3.2.3 Analytical methodsDry matter
Page 53 and 54: solution was generated by mix<stron
Page 55 and 56: 3.2.4 Statistical analysisData from
Page 57 and 58: Factors defined as
Page 59 and 60: chromatography). Relative amounts o
Page 61 and 62: After carotenoids are absorbed thro
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and ended up <stro
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Table 3. 2 - Experimental design us
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Table 3. 4 - Analysed proximate com
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Proximate composition (Analysed; dr
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Table 3. 7 - Lipoxygenase activity
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18 1 0 -1 0 120 15 0 10 2519 -1 0 1
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Table 3. 10 - HPLC carotenoid profi
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Table 3. 12 - Retain</stron
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Table 3. 14 - Fillet carotenoid con
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Total yellow pigment(mg•kg -1 )25
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Figure 3. 4 - Growth curve of ra<st
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effects of dietary CGM and<
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soybean meal in a
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were randomly samp
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An aliquot (1 ml) of chloroform low
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Retained nitrogen
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significant (p
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Values for all-trans astaxanth<stro
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previous reports where colour attri
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Proximate composition (analysed), d
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Table 4. 2 - Growth performance of
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Table 4. 3 - Carcass chemical proxi
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Table 4. 4 - Retain</strong
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Table 4. 5 - Pigment</stron
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Table 4. 6 - Colour attributes <str
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FiguresFigure 4. 1 - Growth curves
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Figure 4. 3 - Muscle colour attribu
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the effects of dietary reduced-caro
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astaxanthin deposi
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After steeping, ke
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0.9994 and 0.9999,
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under acidic and a
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oxidation within t
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colour difference usin</str
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TablesTable 5. 1 - Analyzed proxima
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Effects of
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Effects of
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Effects of
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Effects of
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Data are mean (n=2).a Steepwater pH
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CHAPTER - 6 GENERAL DISCUSSIONCurre
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significant reduction in</s
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Reduction of pigme
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though wheat gluten meal conta<stro
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BibliographyAas, G.H., Storebakken,
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Bjerkeng, B., Hatlen, B., Wathne, E
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Choubert, G., Cravedi, J., Laurenti
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Fauconneau, B., Andre, S., Chmaitil
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Johnston, I., Li, X., Vieira, V., N
Page 161 and 162:
Li, M.H., Oberle, D.F., Lucas, P.M.
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Peter, C.M., Han, Y., Bolin
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Skonberg, D.I., Hardy, R.W., Barrow
Page 167:
Ytrestoyl, T., Struksnæs, G., Kopp
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