Pigment Reduction in Corn Gluten Meal and Its Effects on Muscle ...

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2.9 <strong>Effects</strong> of dietary corn gluten meal on salmonid fish muscle pigmentationAnecdotal evidence from fish farmers along with a small number of scientific studies suggesta negative effect of dietary CGM on muscle astaxanth<strong>in</strong> deposition <strong>and</strong> colour attributes <strong>in</strong> filletsfrom salmonid fish. This phenomenon has been related to the high content of yellow xanthophyllcarotenoids, ma<strong>in</strong>ly lute<strong>in</strong> <strong>and</strong> zeaxanth<strong>in</strong>, present <strong>in</strong> this commodity (220 to 550 mg kg -1 on adry matter basis). Naturally occurr<strong>in</strong>g xanthophylls from CGM have been proposed to<strong>in</strong>teract/compete with astaxanth<strong>in</strong> dur<strong>in</strong>g pigment metabolism (digestion, absorption, transport<strong>and</strong>/or deposition) due to hydrophobic properties <strong>and</strong> molecular characteristics shared by thesecarotenoids (Aas et al., 1999; Furr <strong>and</strong> Clark, 1997; Henmi et al., 1987; Matthews et al., 2006;Salvador et al., 2007).Deposition of different types of pigments <strong>in</strong> muscle from salmonid fish has been previouslyreported. Results from a subcellular fractionation study us<strong>in</strong>g salmon muscle samples <strong>in</strong>dicatedthat actomyos<strong>in</strong> (astaxanth<strong>in</strong> b<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>g prote<strong>in</strong> complex <strong>in</strong> salmonids) is able to comb<strong>in</strong>e withcarotenoids other than astaxanth<strong>in</strong> or canthaxanth<strong>in</strong>, i.e. lute<strong>in</strong>, zeaxanth<strong>in</strong> <strong>and</strong> β-carotene(Henmi et al., 1987; 1989). Zeaxanth<strong>in</strong> has been reported to occur <strong>in</strong> muscle from wild masu(Oncorhynchus masou B.), coho (Oncorhynchus kisutch W.), p<strong>in</strong>k (Oncorhynchus gorbuschaW.), sockeye (Oncorhynchus nerka W.) <strong>and</strong> chum (Oncorhynchus keta W.) salmon (Kitahara1983, 1984). On the other h<strong>and</strong>, lute<strong>in</strong> (3 mg kg -1 ) was determ<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> muscle from ra<strong>in</strong>bow trout(360 g fish -1 ) fed an astaxanth<strong>in</strong>-free diet supplemented with 8 mg kg -1 of lute<strong>in</strong> from algal orig<strong>in</strong>(Caldophora glomerata) for 40 days (Welker et al., 2001).A significant (p
supplemented with 42% of a vegetable prote<strong>in</strong> blend (corn gluten meal <strong>and</strong> full fat soybean meal<strong>in</strong> a 2:1 ratio) <strong>and</strong> 64 mg kg -1 astaxanth<strong>in</strong> dur<strong>in</strong>g a 11-week growth trial (Mundheim et al., 2004).Ra<strong>in</strong>bow trout (320g fish -1 , body weight) fed a diet supplemented with 23% CGM <strong>and</strong> nosynthetic pigment <strong>in</strong>clusion for 12 weeks showed fillets with yellowish appearance (b* values,tristimulus color analysis) (Skonberg et al., 1998). Conversely, <strong>in</strong>clusion of 23% of syntheticlute<strong>in</strong> did not significantly affect (P>0.05) astaxanth<strong>in</strong> blood level <strong>and</strong> muscle deposition <strong>in</strong>Atlantic salmon (1260 g f<strong>in</strong>al body weight) fed a diet supplemented with 54 mg kg -1 of <strong>and</strong>astaxanth<strong>in</strong>, respectively <strong>in</strong> a 138-days study. However, a non-significant (p>0.05) tendency oflower<strong>in</strong>g both muscle <strong>and</strong> blood astaxanth<strong>in</strong> content was observed, moreover lute<strong>in</strong> content <strong>in</strong>blood <strong>and</strong> muscle showed a significant positive correlation with dietary <strong>in</strong>clusion level (Olsen<strong>and</strong> Baker, 2006).2.10 Bleach<strong>in</strong>g of yellow xanthophylls from plant prote<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>gredients2.10.1 Enzymatic treatments2.10.1.1 Natural bleach<strong>in</strong>g<strong>Reduction</strong> of colour <strong>in</strong> flours by ag<strong>in</strong>g is a practice used by millers for centuries. <strong>Pigment</strong>content <strong>in</strong> flour would be bleached <strong>in</strong> approximately 2 to 3 weeks <strong>in</strong> a process called atmosphericoxidation (Saunders et al., 2008, Mercier <strong>and</strong> Gel<strong>in</strong>as, 2001). Due to the long periods of time <strong>in</strong>storage needed for the bleach<strong>in</strong>g reaction to complete, this method is less applicable on acommercial scale.22
Page 1 and 2: Pigment Re
Page 3 and 4: ingredients. Furth
Page 5 and 6: Thanks to all my colleagues, friend
Page 7 and 8: 2.10.1 Enzymatic treatments .......
Page 9 and 10: LIST OF TABLESTable 3. 1 - Factors
Page 11 and 12: LIST OF FIGURESFigure 2. 1 - Molecu
Page 13 and 14: Ingredients commonly in</st
Page 15 and 16: CHAPTER - 2 LITERATURE REVIEW2.1 In
Page 17 and 18: leached when 5% of soy flour as LOX
Page 19 and 20: deep and fast glyc
Page 21 and 22: observed in ra<str
Page 23 and 24: Chylomicron constituents are remove
Page 25 and 26: Muscle growth in r
Page 27 and 28: 2.7.2 Corn gluten
Page 29 and 30: 2010). However, due to its imbalanc
Page 31: No differences in
Page 35 and 36: Soybean seeds are the richest known
Page 37 and 38: 2.10.1.4 Bleaching
Page 39 and 40: 2.11 ConclusionInclusion of <strong
Page 41 and 42: 4.0%*68%* 5.6%* 12%* 3.5%* 6.5%*Fig
Page 43 and 44: Figure 2. 4 - Schematic representat
Page 45 and 46: 3.1 IntroductionThe characteristic
Page 47 and 48: many factors such as LOX source lev
Page 49 and 50: During the 12-week
Page 51 and 52: 3.2.3 Analytical methodsDry matter
Page 53 and 54: solution was generated by mix<stron
Page 55 and 56: 3.2.4 Statistical analysisData from
Page 57 and 58: Factors defined as
Page 59 and 60: chromatography). Relative amounts o
Page 61 and 62: After carotenoids are absorbed thro
Page 63 and 64: and ended up <stro
Page 65 and 66: Table 3. 2 - Experimental design us
Page 67 and 68: Table 3. 4 - Analysed proximate com
Page 69 and 70: Proximate composition (Analysed; dr
Page 71 and 72: Table 3. 7 - Lipoxygenase activity
Page 73 and 74: 18 1 0 -1 0 120 15 0 10 2519 -1 0 1
Page 75 and 76: Table 3. 10 - HPLC carotenoid profi
Page 77 and 78: Table 3. 12 - Retain</stron
Page 79 and 80: Table 3. 14 - Fillet carotenoid con
Page 81 and 82: Total yellow pigment(mg•kg -1 )25
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Figure 3. 4 - Growth curve of ra<st
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effects of dietary CGM and<
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soybean meal in a
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were randomly samp
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An aliquot (1 ml) of chloroform low
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Retained nitrogen
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significant (p
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Values for all-trans astaxanth<stro
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previous reports where colour attri
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Proximate composition (analysed), d
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Table 4. 2 - Growth performance of
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Table 4. 3 - Carcass chemical proxi
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Table 4. 4 - Retain</strong
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Table 4. 5 - Pigment</stron
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Table 4. 6 - Colour attributes <str
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FiguresFigure 4. 1 - Growth curves
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Figure 4. 3 - Muscle colour attribu
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the effects of dietary reduced-caro
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astaxanthin deposi
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After steeping, ke
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0.9994 and 0.9999,
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under acidic and a
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oxidation within t
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colour difference usin</str
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TablesTable 5. 1 - Analyzed proxima
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Effects of
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Effects of
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Effects of
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Effects of
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Data are mean (n=2).a Steepwater pH
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CHAPTER - 6 GENERAL DISCUSSIONCurre
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significant reduction in</s
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Reduction of pigme
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though wheat gluten meal conta<stro
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BibliographyAas, G.H., Storebakken,
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Bjerkeng, B., Hatlen, B., Wathne, E
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Choubert, G., Cravedi, J., Laurenti
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Fauconneau, B., Andre, S., Chmaitil
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Johnston, I., Li, X., Vieira, V., N
Page 161 and 162:
Li, M.H., Oberle, D.F., Lucas, P.M.
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Peter, C.M., Han, Y., Bolin
Page 165 and 166:
Skonberg, D.I., Hardy, R.W., Barrow
Page 167:
Ytrestoyl, T., Struksnæs, G., Kopp
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